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00:00A re-examination of an Egyptian pharaoh believed to have died of natural causes stunned scientists.
00:07There was one major problem with the natural causes theory.
00:11There was no evidence and no proof.
00:13Is it possible the great king was the victim of a murder and cover-up?
00:18An excavation in Spain leads to an eerie discovery.
00:22They find a hidden shaft that leads to a rectangular chamber.
00:25On some of the shelves are vases and ceramics.
00:28What is this place?
00:30Mysterious stone formations are discovered in a cave in the French Pyrenees Mountains.
00:35What are these things?
00:37And who or what created them?
00:42Buried.
00:44Hidden.
00:46Cursed.
00:48From mystical artifacts and doomed treasures
00:52to mysterious structures and ancient rituals.
00:58Myths and legends that have long been shrouded in the shadows of history
01:03are finally brought into the light.
01:09These are Secrets in the Dark.
01:14Spread across 150 square miles in the Egyptian desert,
01:32just east of the Nile River,
01:34Luxor is one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world.
01:39Luxor isn't as populated as Cairo or Alexandria,
01:42but it has a special place in history.
01:44It's better known as the former city of Thebes,
01:47famous for its many ruins and monuments.
01:50Today, Luxor is referred to as the largest open-air museum in the world,
01:53and with good reason.
01:57There are a whole bunch of ancient monuments within the city.
02:01You've got the ruins of the Karnak Temple complex.
02:03You've got the Luxor Temple, constructed around 1400 BCE.
02:08But the most renowned landmarks are the series of tombs and burial grounds
02:11that are across the Nile in an area called the Valley of the Kings.
02:16The Valley of the Kings is also the location of the Royal Cache,
02:22a tomb buried deep in the Theban necropolis.
02:25The cache was discovered in the late 1800s,
02:27and it contained the mummified remains and artifacts of over 50 kings and queens,
02:32ranging from the 17th to 21st dynasties.
02:35That's the period roughly between 1630 and 943 BCE.
02:40The discovery was an incredible treasure trove for historians and scholars.
02:46It provided a wealth of information about ancient Egyptian funeral rites.
02:51It also contained valuable details about the lives and deaths of the royals themselves.
02:56But the mummified remains of one pharaoh in particular
03:00were steeped in mystery and intrigue, Ramses III.
03:05When Ramses' well-preserved remains were discovered in the late 19th century,
03:10scholars assumed he died of natural causes.
03:14He was older and losing strength, possibly even ill.
03:18And based on the external appearance of his remains,
03:20there was nothing to suggest he had suffered any kind of trauma or fatal injury,
03:24either by accident or from violent intent.
03:26However, there was one major problem with the natural causes theory.
03:30There was no evidence and no proof.
03:34Pharaohs typically had all their life events depicted in inscriptions
03:38throughout the temples and tombs, including their death.
03:41But there are no images of Ramses' burial and funeral ceremony to be found,
03:46which is highly suspicious, as if someone or group of individuals
03:50wanted to destroy evidence of the true manner in which Ramses died.
03:54Is it possible the great king was the victim of a murder and cover-up?
04:01Holding the throne for over 30 years, Ramses III was known as a warrior pharaoh
04:07because of his impressive military conquests
04:09and ability to stave off multiple enemy attacks.
04:13But by the end of Ramses' reign, Egypt was starting to decline and fall into chaos.
04:19The economy was crippled by decades of constant warfare,
04:22and the land was devastated by drought.
04:24As a result, the citizens were starving, angry, and desperate for change.
04:30To make matters worse, Ramses was well into his 60s,
04:33so this once-formidable warrior king was starting to show signs of wear and tear.
04:39People needed to know who was going to be next,
04:41but when it came time to choose an heir to the throne,
04:44Ramses III just kept delaying the selection, and that was a problem.
04:48There was unrest, there was confusion,
04:51and there was this overall fear that there was going to be a power vacuum.
04:55It was one of the most important decisions for a pharaoh to make.
04:58The choice of heir determined the future success and direction of the entire country.
05:03But in all the inscriptions and hieroglyphs found on the walls of the Temple of Ramses,
05:08no definitive heir was depicted.
05:11And that was highly unusual.
05:13Even more mysterious, there was nothing to indicate how Ramses died.
05:17And that question has baffled archaeologists for almost 200 years.
05:21A re-examination of Ramses' mummified remains 200 years after they were first discovered
05:28leads to a shocking revelation.
05:31A CT scan was performed on his entire body, and the neck area revealed not just evidence of extreme trauma,
05:40but also intent to kill.
05:43Ramses had a throat wound.
05:46It went so deep that it cut his trachea, esophagus, and several arteries, including the carotid.
05:52So this slashing of the neck was clearly fatal.
05:55A CT scan also revealed a small amulet in the shape of the eye of Horus, which someone had placed on top of the wound to cover it up.
06:10There was no shortage of potential motives, especially from the Egyptian population.
06:16At the time of his murder, the country was in complete turmoil.
06:20The war chest had drained the state treasury, and the severe drought meant there was no food.
06:26In other words, ideal conditions for a rebellion or uprising.
06:29Is it possible Ramses III was murdered in some sort of citizen's revolt?
06:39The poor economic conditions and dwindling food supplies led to what might be considered the first labor strike
06:46in Egypt's recorded history in 1156 BCE.
06:50It was actually the skilled craftsmen and artisans who were building Ramses' monuments in the Valley of the Kings
06:56who finally had enough.
06:58They walked off the job and made their way towards the pharaoh's temple to voice their complaints in protest.
07:05It was just one example of the unrest that was spreading across Egypt.
07:08And at the time, it was no small thing to protest the all-powerful ruler.
07:13Despite that, the angry workers went ahead with their strike, desperate times calling for desperate measures.
07:18But did they take it one step further and assassinate their king?
07:21So that's a logical scenario, but it's unlikely that Ramses III met his fate that way.
07:28Sure, you've got motive, but you don't have opportunity.
07:32The pharaoh's temple was very well protected by trained guards.
07:36And plus, Ramses had at least two personal bodyguards who rarely left his side.
07:41So this means the murder was likely committed by someone in his inner circle.
07:46Not just someone who had access to the king, but someone Ramses trusted enough to be alone with.
07:52That's a very small list of people, but it does include his many wives.
07:57As was the custom, the pharaohs of ancient Egypt had several wives, all of whom lived together within the temple walls.
08:08But the wives weren't alone in the temple.
08:11They lived with and raised the children fathered by the pharaoh.
08:15It was from these children, specifically the male children, that the pharaoh would eventually select an heir.
08:20So you can imagine the level of competition and rivalry for the pharaoh's attention and affection.
08:27While Ramses hadn't yet selected an heir, there was one main contender for the throne.
08:32He was the son of his principal wife, Queen Isis, a young man the king had named after himself, Ramses IV.
08:39In this context, with one wife and son team seemingly destined to become the future rulers of all Egypt,
08:45there was more than likely dissent and jealousy among the other wives in the temple.
08:49It certainly addressed the question of opportunity and access to the king.
08:53The pharaoh's visits to his wives would have been one of the times he probably didn't want two bodyguards right next to him.
09:00So is it possible that Ramses was murdered by one of his wives?
09:07The problem with this theory goes back to the wound itself.
09:10The roughly three-inch gash across his neck sliced right to the bone.
09:14A cut this deep was more likely delivered by a powerful man, possibly a trained soldier.
09:21If Ramses' murder was plotted and planned by a jealous wife, she certainly had help.
09:27A closer inspection of Ramses' body from the CT scan reveals an important clue.
09:33In addition to the neck wound, the scan showed evidence of a second wound, this one on his left foot.
09:41It appeared his left big toe had been chopped off, but there was no sign of healing.
09:46And that means this wound occurred at the same moment as the neck slash that killed him.
09:52This suggested there were at least two assailants at the murder scene using two different weapons.
09:57In this scenario, the first assailant, who was likely a man, attacked Ramses from behind and slit his throat.
10:02The second assailant attempted an attack as well, but only managed to wound the pharaoh's foot.
10:08Ramses may well have been trying to defend himself when the second blow was delivered.
10:11The actual identity of the attackers is difficult, if not impossible, to verify.
10:17But a discovery in Ramses' tomb leads to a prime suspect.
10:23The remains of Ramses were found in the royal cash tomb in the Valley of the Kings, among several other mummies.
10:30But there was this one as yet unidentified mummy close to his sarcophagus that had baffled archaeologists for decades.
10:38This second mummy was referred to as Unknown Man E, but his nickname was the Screaming Mummy.
10:46He looked like he had died in agony.
10:51His head was back, his mouth was open, and his hands and feet had been tied.
10:56It was a terrifying image.
10:58But even more intriguing, the Screaming Mummy hadn't been properly embalmed.
11:03He was wrapped in sheepskin and not in the traditional textiles and fabrics.
11:07Plus, the corpse still contained his vital organs, which were typically removed in the mummification process.
11:13Whoever performed the burial rites for the Screaming Mummy did everything in their power to make sure he would not enter the afterlife.
11:22It was as if he were being punished, even after his death.
11:26But why?
11:27Who was the Screaming Mummy?
11:30And why was he buried with royalty so close to Ramses III?
11:34A DNA test is performed on a sample of the Screaming Mummy's remains.
11:42And it was a 99% match with the DNA of Ramses III himself.
11:46In other words, the Screaming Mummy was one of his natural-born sons, which explains why he was buried so close to Ramses.
11:52And if the Screaming Mummy had played a role in his father's murder, it also explains why he was punished so severely and denied access to the afterlife,
12:01which, for ancient Egyptians, was a fate worse than death itself.
12:04Given the likely intense competition among the wives and the sons of the pharaoh,
12:09while he's deliberating on his choice of heir, it seems entirely plausible that the Screaming Mummy wanted to make sure that Ramses' first choice
12:18wouldn't get to inherit the throne.
12:20And the most effective way to do that was to murder the king before he made that choice.
12:27In the end, Ramses IV, the son of Queen Isis, did become the next pharaoh of Egypt.
12:33So while the killer succeeded in murdering his father, his plan ultimately failed,
12:39and he was sentenced to death either by burning or self-strangulation.
12:45Other questions still remain, particularly surrounding the fate of the Screaming Mummy's mother, one of Ramses' many wives.
12:52But thanks to CT scanning and DNA technology, one of history's greatest mysteries can finally be put to rest.
13:00The case of the murdered pharaoh is just one of the stories buried amongst the tombs and burial grounds of ancient Egypt.
13:09There are many more waiting to be solved with the help of modern science.
13:13Straddling the border between France and Spain,
13:40the majestic Pyrenees Mountains extend over 300 miles from the Mediterranean Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west.
13:51The Pyrenees were formed between 100 and 150 million years ago, making them older than the Alps.
13:57Their sediments were deposited during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras,
14:01and the continental shift created intense pressure, which pushed present-day Spain against France.
14:06The uplifting of the Earth's crust resulted in what we see now.
14:10At its peak, the tallest mountain reaches over 11,000 feet.
14:15The Pyrenees are also home to hundreds of underground cave systems, or grott,
14:21filled with strange limestone formations, interior waterfalls,
14:26and occasionally, evidence of human activity going back 35,000 years.
14:31Cave paintings are still visible on many of the walls.
14:35It's also possible to climb below the Paleolithic cave systems by rappelling with ropes and pulleys,
14:42which is known as spelunking.
14:44It's an extremely precise and dangerous activity,
14:46since you're basically plunging down slippery rock and into areas that haven't necessarily been explored or mapped out yet.
14:54A small group of spelunkers is descending a section of the Bruniquel Cave,
14:59in the southwest corner of the French Pyrenees, when they make a shocking discovery.
15:05When they reached as low as they could safely go, they spotted a crack in a thick layer of clay just wide enough to squeeze through.
15:11The other side of the crack led to a passageway that opened up to reveal a massive chamber-like space that was completely hidden from view.
15:18The first thing they encountered in the chamber was the remains of long-extinct cave bears,
15:26and it's a bit surprising to see bear bones this far down, but it's not unheard of.
15:30After all, bears do spend the winter in caves.
15:34That's where they nestle into what are called hollows and basically just sleep through the whole winter.
15:38But it was what lay beyond the debris of bear bones that really got their attention.
15:43On the floor of the cave, there were several ring-like structures that appeared to be formed from chunks of the cave's stalagmites.
15:52The largest of the circles measured over 20 feet across, so they were big.
15:57And the base of each was between 12 and 16 inches off the ground.
16:02What are these things, and who or what created them?
16:06Given the presence of bear bones, it's possible that the bears hibernating here
16:11pushed and prodded the stalagmite debris into a circle as part of their hollow bed structure.
16:18A closer inspection of the circular structures leads to a possible answer and more questions.
16:25In total, these mysterious rings were created from over 400 broken-off chunks of stalagmite.
16:31Most of them had been ripped or yanked from the ground,
16:33and then somehow chopped or hewn into similar-sized pieces.
16:37Dotted around the outside of the rings were round holes in the ground,
16:41where the ripped stalagmites had once stood.
16:43That's no small enterprise.
16:45That takes a lot of work.
16:46And not the work of any cave bear.
16:49The stalagmite pieces were stacked on top of one another to produce what appear to be walls.
16:54Some of the larger stalagmites were propped upright on either side with smaller ones acting as kind of vertical supports.
17:01In addition to the two large circles, there were a few smaller semicircular structures,
17:07plus one or two piles of broken pieces that looked like they were sort of piled up and ready to go.
17:12The stalagmite rings were clearly the result of human planning and design.
17:18But who were these humans building down there in the darkness?
17:22And what purpose did the structures serve 900 feet below ground?
17:28Careful not to disturb the placement or condition of the stalagmite,
17:32researchers take samples for physical analysis.
17:35The first thing that showed up in the tips of the stalagmites were sections that were charred and discolored,
17:41dark red and black.
17:43Plus, there were soot stains, heat fractures, and burnt material,
17:46including the charred remains of bare bones.
17:48So all this added up to indicate the presence of fire.
17:53So in addition to building complex structures,
17:55the people in that cave also used fire,
17:59likely as a light source, but possibly also as a heat source.
18:03Those cages are chilly.
18:04Right now, the temperature in there is somewhere between about 46 and 53 degrees Fahrenheit.
18:10It's possible that when the people were making these rings, it was even cooler.
18:17Samples of burnt bone and charred remains are taken for carbon-14 dating.
18:23The results of carbon dating indicate how long an organism has been dead.
18:27In this case, the remains were found to be 46,700 years old,
18:32consistent with the upper or third and final period of the Paleolithic era.
18:36The Upper Paleolithic period featured the earliest known evidence of organized human settlements,
18:41such as campsites, some even with storage pits.
18:45It saw the emergence of more specialized tools, like the use of chipped stones.
18:49It's also believed more complex social groupings emerged in this era,
18:52and they were supported by more varied and reliable food sources.
18:56The cave structures could certainly be viewed as evidence of organized settlements.
19:03And it wouldn't be possible to cut thick, rough stalagmites into equal-sized chunks
19:07unless you had some kind of specialized tool.
19:11All of that fits.
19:13Organized settlements and tools are both known to be in use by the Upper Paleolithic era.
19:19However, there's a major challenge to this scenario.
19:23The dating of 47,000 years ago is the absolute limit or longest period the carbon-14 technique can measure.
19:31In other words, if the structures were older than 47,000 years,
19:35the carbon-14 dating wouldn't be able to indicate that.
19:39A second, more advanced technique is applied, with startling results.
19:44The new approach is called uranium-series dating,
19:48a technique that traces the breakdown of uranium to thorium.
19:52It doesn't rely on organic matter like animal bone for sample material.
19:56The stalagmites themselves could be tested to verify whether they were broken off
20:00and moved into their position in the circular structures.
20:03The results were definitive.
20:05The stalagmite rings weren't 47,000 years old.
20:08They were at least 176,000 years old.
20:13That's 40,000 years before the first appearance of our human ancestors in Europe.
20:19That means these things weren't made by Homo sapiens.
20:24If the uranium-series dating was to be believed,
20:27and there was no reason not to believe it,
20:29these ring structures were built by Neanderthals.
20:36Neanderthals are an extinct group of archaic humans
20:39who lived in Eurasia from at least 200,000 years ago.
20:43There's still debate in the scientific community
20:46around the extent of difference between humans and Neanderthals as a species.
20:51We do know there was a period of coexistence and even interbreeding.
20:56Like humans, Neanderthals were large brain and had mastered the use of fire.
21:00But unlike humans, Neanderthals didn't survive.
21:04And the exact reasons for their disappearance
21:06between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago is still a matter of debate.
21:13Anthropologists have traditionally thought of Neanderthals
21:16as having limited, higher human capabilities,
21:18such as the planning, design, or construction of complex structures.
21:22Add to that, Neanderthals were not thought to have ventured underground much,
21:25let alone 900 feet below a cave.
21:27This discovery challenges those assumptions.
21:30It suggests that Neanderthals were cognitively sophisticated
21:33and that they had an organized community structure.
21:37Building these rings almost certainly required a leader
21:40who had a vision for the finished piece,
21:42who could give everyone instructions.
21:44And building this would have required time,
21:47teamwork, and at least some technology.
21:50After all, this had to be done by firelight.
21:53And of course, there's still the main mystery.
21:55What role did these structures play in the lives of the Neanderthals?
22:00The presence of fire indicates not only a light source,
22:03but also a potential cooking source.
22:06So is it possible the rings were for campfires?
22:11It would not be the first time evidence of a Neanderthal campsite
22:15was discovered in the region.
22:16In the Navamayo area of Spain, near Madrid,
22:20researchers discovered a large rock shelter site
22:23that was once used by Neanderthals for their hunting camp.
22:27With the use of taphonomy,
22:28the study of how organic remains change
22:30before and after they become fossils,
22:33it was learned that these early hominins
22:35hunted mainly bovids and cervids,
22:38early forms of cattle and deer.
22:39The Neanderthals at the Navamayo campsite
22:42used the area primarily as a staging post,
22:44a place between where they caught their prey
22:47and the place of final consumption,
22:48usually in large groups.
22:51But it seems unlikely that a dark cave,
22:54900 feet below ground,
22:55with a narrow entrance,
22:56is going to be a convenient place to cook your dinner.
22:59Plus, the ring shapes were almost perfectly round and precise,
23:04unlike the sort of random shapes
23:06you would see at most campfires.
23:08A survey of the non-random placement of those circles
23:12led to another possible explanation.
23:14Maybe there was something ritualistic
23:17or even sacred about this space.
23:20The discovery of burial sites
23:22in the Levant region of Western Asia
23:24revealed Neanderthals engaged in various rituals
23:28when burying their dead.
23:30In fact, Homo sapiens started to bury their dead
23:34in the same areas and around the same time
23:36as their Neanderthal cousins,
23:38roughly 120,000 years ago.
23:41Both species included a variety of ceremonial offerings
23:44with their graves,
23:45likely based on what was available,
23:47like small stones, animal bones, and horns.
23:51But the main difference between the two species
23:53could shed light on the Pyrenees cave.
23:55Neanderthals tended to bury their dead deeper in caves,
23:58whereas Homo sapiens were buried in cave entrances
24:00or rock shelters.
24:03Neanderthal burials made greater use of rocks
24:05as rudimentary gravestones,
24:06while Homo sapien burials featured more decorative items,
24:09such as flowers and shells that were painted with minerals.
24:11It's entirely possible that the chunks of cut stalagmite carefully gathered
24:18and shaped into circles served as grave markers for a Neanderthal burial site.
24:23And while the investigation is ongoing,
24:25we may never know for certain the real story behind these mysterious circles.
24:30The rings of the Brunickel cave deep in the Pyrenees mountains
24:35might be the oldest documented construction ever made by ancient human relatives
24:40and proves just how much we may have underestimated our prehistoric cousins.
24:45Just 18 miles east of Seville,
25:10the town of Carmona is one of the oldest not only in Spain,
25:15but all of Europe,
25:16with continuous habitation dating back over 5,000 years.
25:22Situated on a hill overlooking the Guadalquivir Valley,
25:25the town rises above fertile plains,
25:27known for harvesting wine, olive oil, and grain.
25:30Its strategic military significance is best exemplified
25:33by the imposing gate of Seville fortress in the Alcazar castle.
25:37Dominated at various times by Phoenician, Visigoth, Roman, and Arab invaders,
25:45Carmona is a treasure trove of history and culture.
25:48The complex history of the area flows through the art,
25:53architecture, and cultural traditions that shaped its identity.
25:56The town features significant Roman-era monuments,
26:00including a first-century BCE Roman amphitheater
26:03designed for gladiatorial games and public events,
26:07as well as the necropolis of Carmona,
26:09which contains multiple tombs and mausoleums.
26:12The rich and varied history of the town
26:14has led to numerous archaeological discoveries over the years.
26:17Close to the Roman necropolis,
26:21one family is renovating their home,
26:23adding a swimming pool,
26:24when they make a curious discovery.
26:27While excavating their backyard,
26:29they find a hidden shaft that leads to a rectangular chamber
26:3210 feet long and 5 feet wide,
26:35with a vaulted ceiling 7 feet high.
26:39The walls and floor are coated with small fragments of tiles,
26:43mixed with reddish limestone,
26:44decorated with geometric motifs,
26:46consisting of intertwined red and yellow lines,
26:49forming a grid.
26:51The room has eight individual shelves built into the walls,
26:54four on each side.
26:56On some of the shelves and the floor
26:58are vases, plates, and ceramics.
27:01What is this place?
27:03A team of archaeologists from the University of Cordoba
27:07are brought in to investigate,
27:09and are able to carbon-date the room
27:11to the early 1st century CE,
27:13a time when the Romans ruled the land.
27:16What we're looking at is most likely a Roman mausoleum.
27:19The shelves on the walls are called niches,
27:22and the six pots are probably urns filled with human remains.
27:26The other objects found around the space
27:28are probably funeral offerings,
27:30which was a custom of the time.
27:32Strangely, one urn has glass inside of it,
27:35and it's filled to the brim with a dark, murky liquid.
27:38What could this liquid be?
27:40And why would it be buried here, in this tomb?
27:46There are not many examples of liquids
27:49being found in Roman archaeological digs,
27:51but there is one that has been found a few times
27:54linked to the food and culture of the era.
27:57Garum is a fermented fish sauce
28:00that was a widely popular condiment in ancient Rome,
28:03known for its bold, savoury flavour
28:05that could transform even the simplest dishes.
28:08Made from small fish like sardines and anchovies,
28:11the sauce would use every part of the fish,
28:14from the guts to the bones.
28:16Interestingly,
28:17Garum helped to timestamp
28:18exactly when Mount Vesuvius exploded
28:21and buried the Roman city of Pompeii
28:23under 13 to 20 feet of volcanic ash,
28:26creating one of the world's
28:27most renowned archaeological sites.
28:34Analysis of residue
28:35revealed that the final batch of Pompeian garum
28:39was made exclusively from bogues,
28:41a Mediterranean fish abundant in the summer months,
28:44and the sauce's contents provided evidence
28:47supporting the theory that Mount Vesuvius erupted
28:49on August 24th in the year 79 CE.
28:54Could this be another instance
28:56of garum shedding light
28:57on an enduring Roman mystery?
28:59It was stored in large clay vessels
29:01known as amphorae,
29:03similar to those found in this tomb.
29:05While the liquid found in Carmona
29:07could be garum,
29:08placed in the tomb as a burial offering,
29:10it's unlikely,
29:12as it would not be as well preserved
29:13as this liquid appears to be.
29:17As the team continues
29:19to excavate the tomb,
29:20they find remnants of another liquid
29:22that is well known
29:23for being part of funerary rituals
29:25in Roman culture.
29:28Inside one of the urns,
29:29there was a perfume bottle
29:30with patchouli scent,
29:32hinting at a high-status family.
29:34So, could the mysterious liquid
29:36found in the other urn
29:37be ancient perfume as well?
29:41Perfumes have been used
29:43by human beings
29:43for over 5,000 years,
29:45with the ancient Egyptians
29:46believed to be the first
29:47to create them.
29:49Roman society also valued perfumes,
29:51creating highly aromatic resins
29:53for use in rituals,
29:55including funerals,
29:56where it was believed
29:57they would cleanse
29:58and purify the soul
29:59before it journeyed
30:01on to the afterlife.
30:02These scents also help mask
30:04the odors of the deceased.
30:07The perfumes came
30:08in all different scents,
30:09based on spices
30:10such as cinnamon,
30:12spikenard,
30:13frankincense,
30:14and myrrh.
30:15The especially rare
30:16and expensive ones
30:17symbolizes the deceased's
30:19social status.
30:21After cremation,
30:22the bones and ash
30:23were placed in an urn
30:24along with perfume
30:25stored in glass,
30:26ceramic,
30:27or crystal containers,
30:28and that depended
30:29on the person's wealth.
30:31Wealthy families
30:31often built
30:32funerary chambers
30:33to hold the urns
30:34of all family members,
30:36like the one
30:36discovered in Carmona.
30:37While this seems
30:40to be a very strong theory,
30:42there are only
30:43a few examples
30:44of perfumes in burials
30:45being used outside of Rome.
30:48Researchers in England
30:49discovered a similar example
30:51in the Roman ruins
30:52of Dorchester in Dorset,
30:54where they found
30:54sticky residue
30:55on the plaster
30:56encasing seven individuals
30:58buried in the 4th century CE.
31:01Analysis revealed
31:02that the substance
31:03contained diterpenoids
31:04from pinaceae resins,
31:06derived from conifers
31:07such as pines,
31:09firs, and cedars.
31:11There were also examples
31:12of this used
31:13in cremation
31:13in the Mercy Island
31:15barrow in Essex,
31:16where they found resin
31:17identified as frankincense.
31:20The resin was unburnt,
31:21meaning it was added
31:22to the cremated remains
31:23after they had already
31:25been placed
31:25in a glass vessel,
31:27similar to the urns
31:28found in Carmona.
31:30During Roman times,
31:31perfumes were stored
31:32in specific bottles
31:33known as unguentaria,
31:35which are among
31:36the most common artifacts
31:37found in Roman burials.
31:39And there's no evidence
31:40to suggest that perfume
31:41was ever placed in urns
31:43within a mausoleum,
31:44so it's unlikely
31:45this liquid is perfume.
31:47By analyzing mineral salts,
31:50antioxidants,
31:50and testing for the presence
31:52of ethanol,
31:53the researchers determine
31:54exactly what the liquid is.
31:57It's wine,
31:58white wine to be exact.
32:00In ancient Roman rituals,
32:02wine was symbolic
32:03and often placed
32:04with the deceased
32:05as part of burial offerings
32:06to assist the soul's transition
32:08into the afterlife.
32:09In fact,
32:10the oldest wine ever found
32:12was of Roman descent.
32:14In 1867,
32:15during the excavation
32:16of a Roman couple's tomb
32:18near Speyer, Germany,
32:19several bottles of wine
32:21were uncovered,
32:22but only one
32:23still contained liquid.
32:25Dating back to around 325 CE,
32:27the wine had transformed
32:28over time
32:29into a dark resin-like mass
32:32and cloudy liquid,
32:33preserved because
32:34it contained olive oil
32:35and was heavily sealed
32:36with wax.
32:38Further testing on the wine
32:39produces some rather
32:41surprising results.
32:43It's about 300 years older
32:45than the Speyer wine bottle,
32:47making it the oldest example
32:49of wine ever found.
32:51This is a huge discovery.
32:53They also found traces
32:54of cremated remains
32:55and bone fragments
32:56of a male mixed in
32:57with the wine.
32:58The reason for it
32:59only being a male's remains
33:01might be because
33:01of gender social norms
33:03of the time.
33:04In total,
33:05the various urns
33:06in the mausoleum
33:07contained the remains
33:08of six people,
33:10most likely a family.
33:12Based on the type of tomb
33:13and the objects it housed
33:14like perfume,
33:15wine, amber, ivory,
33:17jewels,
33:17and other burial offerings,
33:19this was probably
33:20a family of high social standing.
33:22All these elements
33:23are rarely preserved,
33:25so they offer
33:25a unique opportunity
33:26for study.
33:28However,
33:29this discovery
33:30also upset some of the locals
33:31who don't love the idea
33:33of disturbing an ancient grave.
33:35Some believe spirits
33:36can be bound to grave goods,
33:38like the ones found here,
33:40and even hint
33:40at the consequences,
33:42claiming to hear
33:43ghostly toasts
33:44near the site.
33:46While this discovery
33:47might shine a whole new light
33:49on ancient Roman burial practices
33:51and uncover the oldest wine
33:53in history,
33:54the team of researchers
33:55must now balance
33:56their curiosity
33:57with the eerie legends
33:59of the area.
34:00located in the heart of North Holland,
34:26about 20 miles north of Amsterdam,
34:28Alkmaar is a charming
34:30Dutch city
34:31known for its rich history
34:33and picturesque canals.
34:35With origins dating back
34:37to the 10th century,
34:38Alkmaar has played
34:39a significant role
34:40in the Netherlands' history,
34:41particularly as a symbol
34:43of Dutch resistance
34:44during the Siege of Alkmaar,
34:45one of the first major victories
34:47against Spanish rule
34:48in the 80 Years' War.
34:51Alkmaar is best known
34:52for its cheese.
34:54Its cheese trading history
34:55dates back more than 600 years.
34:58At its peak
34:58in the 17th century,
35:00that city traded
35:01millions of pounds
35:03of cheese,
35:03exporting it
35:04all across Europe
35:05and even as far as
35:06North America
35:07and the Caribbean.
35:09One area that attracts
35:10significant attention
35:11is Alkmaar's designated
35:12red light district,
35:13Akterdam.
35:14Known for its legalized
35:15and regulated window prostitution,
35:17the area has been used
35:18for this purpose
35:19since the Middle Ages.
35:20Though smaller than
35:21Amsterdam's red light district,
35:23Akterdam remains a notable part
35:24of Alkmaar's nightlife
35:25and history.
35:28Since the buildings
35:29in this area
35:30have stood for centuries,
35:31they often require
35:32rehabilitation
35:33or restoration.
35:35During work
35:36on one such building,
35:37construction workers
35:38find something
35:39disturbingly dark.
35:42So they're digging up
35:43the floor
35:43and they find
35:44this ancient tile surface
35:47that's partially filled
35:48with bones.
35:51And they're not just
35:52buried there,
35:52they're laid out
35:53in a deliberate pattern.
35:55The tiles
35:56have been worn down
35:57presumably from years of use
35:59and it looks like
36:00someone's filled the gaps
36:01with these bones.
36:03A lot of them
36:04have been sawed
36:05into pieces
36:05to fit precisely
36:06into the missing sections.
36:09The house was built
36:10in 1609,
36:11but it's possible
36:12that the existing structure
36:13was constructed
36:14on top of an older foundation,
36:16a common practice
36:17at the time.
36:18However,
36:18that still doesn't
36:19explain the bones.
36:21Are these human remains?
36:22Why would someone
36:23use bones in this way
36:24and where did they come from?
36:28About 115 miles away
36:30from Olkermar
36:31in the city of Ghent, Belgium,
36:33excavations beneath
36:34Saint-Bavreau's cathedral
36:35uncovered a series
36:37of nine walls
36:38constructed from human bones.
36:41Composed primarily
36:43of adult thigh
36:43and shin bones,
36:44the walls are also
36:45interspersed
36:46with partially shattered skulls.
36:49Smaller and more fragile bones,
36:51such as ribs
36:52and vertebrae
36:52are absent,
36:53possibly because
36:54they were deemed
36:55too difficult
36:55or impractical
36:56to collect.
36:58Conspicuously missing
36:59are arm bones,
37:00which,
37:00all else being equal,
37:02should have been sturdy enough
37:03to feature
37:03in the construction.
37:05It's unclear
37:06why these specific remains
37:07appear to have been excluded,
37:09perhaps because
37:10they didn't physically
37:11match the size
37:11of the leg bones,
37:12or because they lacked
37:13the appropriate
37:14spiritual significance.
37:16radiocarbon dating
37:18shows the bones
37:19are from the late 1400s,
37:21and the walls
37:22were likely built
37:23200 to 300 years
37:24after that.
37:26Above the remains,
37:27full skeletons
37:28suggest a newer graveyard
37:30replacing earlier burials,
37:32likely during
37:33cemetery clearances.
37:34So this idea
37:35of digging up
37:36all the old bodies
37:37to make room
37:38for new ones
37:38might seem a little callous,
37:40but this was how
37:41it was done.
37:42It was seen
37:42as a respectful
37:43and practical tribute
37:44to the deceased.
37:46It wasn't seen
37:46as any kind of disrespect.
37:49This actually reflects
37:51the medieval Christian belief
37:52in bodily resurrection,
37:53which said that
37:54on Judgment Day,
37:55the dead would be
37:56physically restored.
37:58Because of this,
37:59bones,
37:59especially larger ones
38:00like leg bones
38:01and skulls,
38:02were considered sacred
38:03and essential
38:04for resurrection,
38:05meaning they couldn't
38:06simply be discarded
38:06when cemeteries
38:07became overcrowded.
38:09Instead,
38:10they were carefully rearranged
38:11and preserved
38:12in structures
38:12like these bone walls,
38:14ensuring that the remains
38:15were still honored.
38:17The homeowners
38:18bring in a team
38:19of municipal archaeologists
38:21to study the bone tiles further
38:23and are relieved
38:25by the results.
38:26The bones are not
38:27from humans.
38:28They're animal bones.
38:30And they're all
38:30leg and ankle bones
38:31that were trimmed down
38:32to fill the missing parts
38:33of the floor.
38:35Animal bone construction
38:36has been discovered before,
38:38but generally speaking,
38:39it's from the distant past.
38:40While the fact
38:42that these are animal bones
38:43in Alkmaar
38:43might sound like
38:44we've solved the mystery,
38:46that's not really
38:46a solution at all
38:47because it brings up
38:48a whole bunch
38:49of other questions.
38:50Are these farm animals?
38:52Are they some kind
38:53of hunted animal?
38:54And why would anyone
38:56build a structure
38:57out of that material?
38:59Roughly 300 miles
39:02south of Moscow,
39:04archaeologists uncovered
39:05a remarkable
39:0625,000-year-old structure
39:08in Russia's Forest Steppe.
39:10This circular construction,
39:12approximately 40 feet
39:13in diameter,
39:15was meticulously built
39:16using the bones
39:17of at least 60 woolly mammoths.
39:20The sheer scale
39:21and complexity
39:22of this structure
39:23set it apart
39:23from other known
39:24mammoth bone constructions,
39:25which are typically smaller
39:26and less elaborate.
39:28Inside, evidence
39:29of ancient fires
39:30and food remains,
39:31including vegetables,
39:32suggests that this site
39:33served a purpose
39:34beyond shelter.
39:35The exact purpose
39:36of the structure
39:37is still up for debate.
39:38Some people say
39:38it served practical functions
39:40like storage
39:41or a large communal
39:43gathering space.
39:44Others say it may have
39:45been built for rituals.
39:47In all likelihood,
39:48it probably did
39:48a little of both,
39:49but the design
39:51and the resources
39:52you would need
39:53to build something
39:53with that design
39:54suggest this
39:56was a complex society.
39:59It's believed
40:00that most of the mammoths
40:00used to build the site
40:01were female,
40:02suggesting that Ice Age
40:03inhabitants hunted
40:04or scavenged from herds
40:05rather than trapping
40:06lone males.
40:08Additionally,
40:09some bones
40:09are significantly older
40:10than others,
40:11indicating that
40:11Paleolithic humans
40:12may have used
40:13both recently deceased
40:14and long-dead animals.
40:16The Russian site
40:17is not the only example
40:18of this kind
40:19of construction.
40:20Roughly 70 mammoth bone structures
40:22have been discovered
40:23throughout Eastern Europe.
40:25So could the bone tiles
40:26in Alchemar
40:27be part of a larger structure
40:28made of mammoth bones
40:29or some other ancient beast?
40:31Ongoing tests
40:34and excavations
40:35of the Alchemar bones
40:37and the surrounding area
40:38continue to uncover
40:39new information.
40:41The bones
40:42don't belong
40:43to mammoths
40:44or to any other
40:45ancient creature.
40:46These are actually
40:48from cows.
40:49But they're not just
40:50random cow bones.
40:51They're just
40:52leg
40:53and ankle bones.
40:55Similar bone tile floors
40:56have been unearthed
40:57in several other cities
40:58in North Holland.
40:59The port towns
41:00of Horn,
41:01Enkhausen,
41:01and Edam
41:02yielded nearly
41:03identical findings
41:04all dating
41:04to the 15th century.
41:06These discoveries
41:07suggest that using
41:08animal bones
41:09in flooring
41:09was a distinctive
41:10practice in medieval
41:12North Holland
41:12and that the bone floors
41:14in Alchemar
41:14likely date
41:15to the same period.
41:17The house
41:17built in 1609
41:18was probably constructed
41:20over the original flooring.
41:22So now we know
41:23where the bones
41:23came from.
41:24But the original question
41:25still remains.
41:27Why were bones used
41:28for floor tiling?
41:31Examining historical events
41:33from that time
41:34may help the archaeologists
41:35unlock the answers
41:37to this mystery.
41:39During this period,
41:40Holland was under
41:40Spanish rule.
41:41But there was an uprising
41:42and in 1572,
41:45Alchemar joined
41:45the rebellion.
41:47That same year,
41:47cities like Brielle
41:48and Enkhausen
41:49aligned with the
41:50Waterhusen,
41:51a rebel group
41:52fighting for Dutch
41:53independence.
41:53This marked a turning point
41:55as more towns
41:56rose in defiance
41:57against Spanish control.
41:59That defiance
42:00had brutal consequences.
42:02The Spanish
42:02launched violent
42:03crackdowns
42:04on rebellious cities
42:05and Alchemar
42:06came under fire
42:07in 1573.
42:09But Alchemar
42:10successfully resisted
42:12the Spanish forces,
42:13marking one of the
42:14first major victories
42:15in their revolt
42:16and a decisive
42:17turning point
42:18in the Dutch
42:19struggle for independence.
42:21The ongoing war
42:22led to food shortages,
42:24trade disruptions
42:24and higher taxes.
42:26Many commoners
42:27suffered,
42:28especially as resources
42:29were redirected
42:30towards Alchemar's
42:30defense against
42:31the Spaniards.
42:32Perhaps the bone tiles
42:34were used during
42:34this time
42:35because materials
42:36like tiles and bricks
42:37were prioritized
42:38for defenses
42:39or it became
42:40difficult to source.
42:41while there is no
42:44definitive answer
42:45as to why animal bones
42:46were used in floors
42:47across Northern Holland,
42:49the pattern suggests
42:50it may have been
42:51a common practice.
42:53Whether it was due
42:54to scarcity,
42:55symbolic tradition
42:56or simply a creative use
42:58of available materials
42:59is anyone's guess.
43:01of itself
43:05is anyone's guess
43:07of its name
43:08he is the one
43:09that I've been
43:10before
43:10So,
43:11he's like,
43:12yes,
43:12I'm doing
43:13a great job
43:14and I'm doing
43:15a great job
43:15for me.
43:16I can't do it,
43:17but I can't do it.
43:18But I'm doing
43:19the same thing
43:19that I can do
43:21things
43:22that I can do
43:22for the purposes
43:23and I can do
43:24is important
43:25as ablick
43:26in a way
43:28that I can't
43:28we can do
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