- há 18 horas
A growing threat to democracies appears in the force of dictatorships. Dictators like Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Augusto Pinochet, Mobutu Sese Seko and Fidel Castro found their way to power through similar methods. “Making A Dictator” examines the brutal methods and common practices implemented by each dictatorship, along with the ways in which they corrupted the countries they claimed to improve.
Categoria
📚
AprendizadoTranscrição
00:01It takes a specific set of conditions and characters for a dictator to rise to power.
00:12First, there must be a crisis the dictator can exploit to convince people that desperate times call for desperate measures.
00:20Second, the right person has to be waiting in the wings, ready to seize the opportunity.
00:30Someone fanatical, narcissistic, and charismatic enough to portray himself as the nation's savior.
00:41Once they are firmly in control, their main concern is to keep it that way.
00:50By forging strategic alliances and eliminating opposition and dissent.
00:58It seems almost every dictatorship has a breaking point.
01:02The culmination of circumstances that leads to a moment when the country will no longer follow.
01:12But just as a tyrant rises to power, so too he falls.
01:16And with him, the regime he created.
01:23For Hitler and Nazi Germany, the beginning of the end is marked as they look to sack Poland.
01:29The Nazis have long dreamt of conquest outside of Germany.
01:34But in order to expand, they need an ally.
01:36Hitler faced a real quandary in 1939.
01:44Poland tightened its relationship with Great Britain.
01:49What Hitler didn't want was to fight a two-front war.
01:53Because that was something that Germany couldn't win.
01:55With Hitler, the ideology of what he called National Socialism had to mean war.
02:06He begins from the understanding that everything that happens is racial war.
02:09All that matters is territory.
02:10So Hitler negotiates a non-aggression pact with Stalin and the Soviets.
02:17The old saying, the enemy of my enemy is my friend, certainly raises its head throughout geopolitical history.
02:24The challenge that arises is, of course, that that kind of an alliance really only lasts as long as they share a common enemy.
02:37August 23rd, 1939, the Stalin-Hitler pact is announced.
02:42At the time, it seems like a brilliant move.
02:49War.
02:51Precisely have gone on September 1st.
02:54Without warning, the German Zermatt rolled over the Polish border.
03:00Hitler is able to carry out some great military successes against Poland and then in Western Europe.
03:06Which shocked the world that he's able to defeat these powers in just a matter of weeks.
03:15France is defeated in six weeks and France was the military equal in many respects of Nazi Germany.
03:26The fall of France was the key event of the whole Second World War because it convinced the Germans that they could do anything.
03:32Then Hitler steps over the line.
03:41In June of 1941, he launches a surprise attack on the Soviet Union.
03:47Outside Stalingrad, the icy winter becomes a fiery hell.
03:50Codenamed Operation Barbarossa, the invasion is intended to acquire new territory, vast oil reserves, and to enslave Russians to provide manpower for the Nazi war machine.
04:08The German generals are not that enthusiastic about fighting the Soviet Union, especially at the beginning.
04:17But what happens is that Hitler fights a bunch of wars that he doesn't really care about.
04:21And that convinces everyone that he's a genius.
04:27For many people that they saw this, the remarkable movement of the German army almost to the gates of Moscow.
04:36But then it stopped.
04:37Hitler invades the Soviet Union with a war plan that says we're going to win in nine to twelve weeks.
04:44We don't need to bring fuel because we're going to go so fast we're going to steal the fuel.
04:48We don't need to bring winter clothing because it's all going to be over before fall.
04:53We don't need to bring food because after a few weeks the soldiers are going to feed themselves from the land.
04:57So basically you're assuming that everything is going to go perfectly.
05:01And it doesn't.
05:04And that's where Hitler overreaches.
05:06Hitler and the Nazis lose the battle of Moscow because Hitler wildly underestimated the effects of fatigue, hunger, and bitter cold on his army.
05:17Not to mention the difficulty of conquering a vast territory with a front of almost 2,000 miles.
05:27Germany's inability to defeat the Soviet Union has other consequences as well.
05:38His forces leave in their wake a trail of blood, starvation, and atrocities.
05:44About 2 to 3.3 million of Soviet prisoners of war died in German hands.
05:52Most in the first six months they were brutally treated.
05:55Hitler's self-destruction is not an accident but a consequence of the very nature of dictatorship.
06:05That overreach was built in because Hitler wouldn't have been Hitler if he hadn't tried to destroy the Soviet Union.
06:11That tragedy or that apocalypse was built in from the very beginning.
06:16So it's not as though these things happened by chance, right?
06:20It's integral in a way to these systems that they're going to try to do too much.
06:25Adolf Hitler, like many dictators, doesn't see himself as responsible for Germany's losses.
06:34So he's unable to adapt to new circumstances.
06:37He blamed the generals for the defeat on the front. He blamed civilian authorities for the failures on the domestic front.
06:50Everybody else was responsible for Germany's failings, not him.
06:55In fact, it was Hitler who broke ties with the Soviet Union and stretched his army too thin.
07:02He was in control.
07:03Berlin, a dead city. What was once a metropolis of four million is today a lifeless mound of rubble.
07:14A destroyed city that would have destroyed the world.
07:17Other dictators like Mobutu Sese Seko and Zaire have fallen victim of historical circumstances beyond their control.
07:29Even though they are unable to control everything, they still think they are invulnerable.
07:38Usually what happens with dictators is that they get themselves cornered by themselves.
07:47They start losing supporters in society, and they became increasingly paranoid.
07:55And when paranoia gets into the head of a man of power, things go really rough.
08:03Dictators know that once the masses mobilize, then their days are numbered.
08:24When the source of a dictator's power dries up, whatever that source may be, they are in trouble.
08:34Many a tyrant relies on the support of other national powers, or at least on their decision not to oppose them.
08:42International allies supply the regime with money, training, military support, and covert assistance.
08:53Case in point, Mobutu.
08:55So Mobutu's friends, you know, whether it be people in Belgium, France, or United States, were always there to support their men, the men in Kinshasa.
09:08A lot of military officers from Zaire at the time came to American schools.
09:19Allies often look the other way when the dictator commits acts of repression and violence.
09:25And dictators can get so used to this arrangement that they don't notice when the world changes around them.
09:34The longer staying in power, the more blind he became to add the changes in the world.
09:43Mobutu's rise coincided with a period when the Cold War was raging.
09:47By 1964, the U.S. is anxious about the rise of communism in Southeast Asia.
10:03The threat of communist forces taking strategic locations across the globe drives the U.S. to mobilize.
10:10With the help of leaders like Mobutu.
10:16Mobutu is seen to be a bulwark against communism in Africa, the United States' first line of defense in the region.
10:24He enjoys U.S. backing, no matter what he does to his people.
10:29With the setting like the Cold War, you have to find an enemy.
10:34And it's very easy then to please your backers, your patrons in Washington D.C. and others,
10:41to start labeling people you want to get rid of as communists.
10:45So you can then have reason to go after them.
10:49The Vietnam War ended in 1975.
10:53We have now reached a point where we can confidently move to a longer range program
10:59for the replacement of Americans by South Vietnamese troops.
11:04We finally have in sight the just peace we are seeking.
11:09Despite the end of the Vietnam War, U.S. support for Mobutu continues for 15 years.
11:16With dictators, because you've been riding the tiger so much, you are also becoming blind.
11:23Mobutu's cozy relationship with the U.S.
11:26last through most of the 80s.
11:32But then history takes a sharp turn.
11:35The Cold War ends.
11:39In 1989, the Berlin Wall falls.
11:47And Mikhail Gorbachev and George H.W. Bush shake hands.
11:51Mobutu had built himself as a Cold Warrior.
11:57He became so rigid that as the Berlin Wall fell and the changes were happening around the world,
12:04he could not reinvent himself. He could not adapt to that.
12:08Without support from the U.S., huge domestic and foreign policy problems in Zaire,
12:13coupled with growing opposition to his regime, meant Mobutu's days were numbered.
12:29Like Mobutu, Saddam Hussein was also seen early on as a U.S. asset, particularly by the CIA,
12:35which used him and other Ba'athists as weapons in its fight against communism,
12:42and to help stabilize a region on which it depended for oil.
12:46Saddam Hussein was an ally of ours during the Iran-Iraq war.
12:49That, of course, shifted with Saddam's invasion of Kuwait and our fear in the United States that that invasion could proceed on to Saudi Arabia and threaten the United States interests there.
13:06Saddam's invasion steps over the line.
13:14The U.S. answers.
13:16And in six months, a U.S.-led coalition defeats Iraq in the Gulf War.
13:23Saddam Hussein never once turned around and blamed himself.
13:28Though Saddam's military lost in Kuwait, he remained in power.
13:33But how much longer would he maintain control?
13:48In 2003, the U.S., claiming that Iraq has weapons of mass destruction, invades at the head of another coalition.
13:56In March of 2003, the president made his fateful decision, and shock and awe was underway.
14:08Dictators have illusions of control.
14:12The ending of a dictatorship is always full of these scenes where the dictator is in a delusional state.
14:25It's like Hitler, in his last month, giving medals to young boys and old men who were going to defend Berlin.
14:35Saddam, like Hitler, would find his end through a combination of external factors and an overextension of his power.
14:47Sometimes a dictator overreaches because it's in the logic of the ideology.
14:50For Saddam and the Ba'ath party, this meant beatings, torture, and murder.
15:00But no 20th century dictator has clean hands when it comes to human rights violations.
15:07Violence causes terror in the population.
15:11And the fear a dictator sows may be his greatest asset in retaining power.
15:17And it works, at least for a while.
15:26Fear plays a very important role in the rise to power of the dictator, the maintenance of power of a dictator, and also the ending of a dictatorship.
15:42All dictators eventually find their end.
15:45Dictators that take hold based on fear take hold quickly, but their power doesn't actually last particularly long.
15:57But for some, a dictatorship lasts a lifetime.
16:02Some dictators remain dictators all their lives and do not experience a downfall.
16:09For example, Stalin. For example, Khomeini. For example, Mao.
16:16Because their grip on power was so great, they were not pushed aside by even great disasters.
16:25The torment of a nation. Chile, its southern half devastated day after day by volcanic eruptions and earth shocks of cataclysmic force.
16:36Thousands are dead. One quarter of the nation, over two million homeless, and still the upheavals continue.
16:41Just as natural and man-made disasters often bring a dictator to power, disasters may also keep them in power.
16:50Some of the more important and interesting dictators had a sense that only I am capable of guiding the nation through this situation.
17:00That's how they present themselves.
17:03Recuperar the work in the industries and in the camp, which has been done in a large way.
17:12Even dictators like Augusto Pinochet in Chile, who don't experience a dramatic fall from power, can come to believe so strongly in their own infallibility that they fail to notice their time has passed.
17:26Pinochet ruled Chile with an iron fist from 1973 to 1990, a 17-year reign in which more than 3,000 were executed or disappeared, and 40,000 subjected to imprisonment and torture.
17:46But how was a regime like this able to survive?
17:56Even if an autocratic regime commits crimes against humanity, they can sometimes stay in power if the public believes the country is weak without them.
18:08One of the ways dictators attempt to fool the public that the country is better with them in charge is to play host to a sports event on a global level.
18:17In the case of Mobutu, to stay in this world of sports, it's Zaire that financed and underwrote the rumble in the jungle.
18:26This is the most famous boxing match that pitted Muhammad Ali and George Foreman in Kinshasa in 1974.
18:33I had a dream. When I got to Africa, I had one hell of a rumble. I had to beat Tarzan's behind first, proclaiming to be the king in the jungle.
18:42And it was such a successful event that the Philippines decided to copy that model. And a few years later, the Philippines hosted a trailer in Manila.
18:52So this is a kind of event that really brought a sense of pride and a sense of belonging to the millions of Congolese who just a few years before that had been fighting against each other.
19:05So Mobutu benefit. But above that, the country itself, Zaire is a very rich country. It has large reserves of copper, cobalt, diamond, zinc, manganese, including uranium.
19:22So all this allowed Zaire to get a lot of resources and revenue, which then, especially through the 60s and the 70s, Mobutu did to develop these programs to build the nation.
19:33So it's helped a lot. That's why when I say Mobutu bankrolled or underwrote the rumble in the jungle, this was Zaire's money that Mobutu put forth as a good PR for the country.
19:45Dictators understand the value of world perception. Even the most offensive agendas can be put on hold when the country is on the world stage.
19:55As was evident in Germany when they hosted the 1936 Olympics. Hitler and the Nazis sidelined their rhetoric to enhance the perception of Germany's might.
20:06The 11th Olympiade neuer Zeitrechnung, all eröffnet!
20:15Now 30,000 carrier pigeons are released. They are the doves of peace symbolizing the comradeship that exists among all nations in the athletic arena.
20:21The second time we saw Hitler driving by for the Olympic games.
20:27I would say in 1935, you could see special benches in the parks for Jews. You saw signs, Jews are not welcome.
20:43And if you took a trip to a suburb, it was a big sign. Jews go back to Palestine. Stuff like this.
20:57However, during the Olympics, 1936, all disappeared. All the signs disappeared. You could sit everywhere. It was very civilized.
21:12Has already beaten the world record in his first heat.
21:15But the moment the Olympics were over, the signs were up again and so on and started.
21:22It's a familiar pattern. In 1978, a dictatorial Argentina hosted the World Cup.
21:32Once again, the human rights abuses of the dictator were masked.
21:41Making the country appear prosperous and thriving.
21:45It's not only good for the dictator, but can help to bring short-term economic growth to the country.
21:52In the charge of the government function, we imposed two fundamental tasks.
21:59Order a country that was disordained and pacify a country that was attacked.
22:07Dictators in South America align sports with economic growth to help hold on to their power.
22:21One of the reasons that Pinochet had this long time in power was that economically, Chile did pretty well.
22:29With more foreign investment and fewer barriers to trade, Chile's economy started to grow.
22:36A lot of money was running into the country, was flowing into the country.
22:41The country changed from a domestic-oriented economy to export-oriented economy.
22:47But the greatest beneficiaries of the new economy were Pinochet and his cronies, wealthy Chileans and foreign corporations.
22:56Among the working class, unemployment skyrockets and real wages plummet.
23:05The cost of economic growth is ruthless suppression of dissent and human rights.
23:14When society feels that, well, we are doing pretty well economically, but what about if I do not agree with you, Pinochet?
23:21What about if I do not agree with the orientation the country is having? Can I say something?
23:26And when economic rights and political rights start clashing, things start to tremble.
23:42In the early 1980s, one by one the military juntas in Latin America give way to a movement towards civilian democratic rule.
23:51Senora Lidia Guila, the new president of Bolivia.
23:54The pendulum had changed in Latin America. We were returning to democracy.
24:00In 1985, after more than 20 years of military rule, Brazil returns to democracy.
24:07Bolivia elects a democratic government three years earlier in 1982.
24:13Argentina follows in 1983.
24:17Pretty much all Latin America was doing the same movement towards democracy.
24:21But in Chile, Pinochet remains in power throughout the 80s.
24:27Even as the world changes around him, he sees himself as invincible.
24:33So much so that in 1988, he allows a popular referendum on whether he should continue as president for the next eight years.
24:40By the moment that the referendum was in place in Chile, society was in the tipping point.
24:50But Pinochet was convinced he could muscle his way to victory just as he always had.
24:56This time, he was wrong.
24:57It was a political momentum in the opposition to start fighting back, to start criticizing the government out loud.
25:11Plus, the political parties were working together because they understood that the only way to get rid of the dictator was with the government that could put Chileans together.
25:23On October 5th, 1988, Chileans say no to Augusto Pinochet.
25:30With the Cold War a thing of the past, big business lined up against him, and the wave of democracy sweeping across South America, the aging dictator is a casualty of history and hubris.
25:46Argentina's military junta also comes to an end, in part because Argentinians have had enough.
25:56By 1981, the brutal dictatorship of Jorge Rafael Videla has been in place for five years.
26:05In Argentina, the repression during the 70s is something different.
26:10Concentration camps were created.
26:12The idea of the disappearing people started because Videla was in power.
26:23They would take the prisoners in order to kill them, to take them to airplanes, and then to throw them to the river.
26:33It becomes known as the Dirty War.
26:36Anyone suspected of being a threat to the regime is targeted for death.
26:42In addition to the disappeared, the country's finances hit a low.
26:48The economical situation was a mess, it was a disaster. The unemployment was rising and rising.
26:54Similar to other dictatorships, when one dictator steps down, another takes their place.
27:03When Videla leaves office, another Argentine general takes the presidency by coup.
27:09Leopoldo Galtieri. Faced with a desperate economic and political situation, Galtieri aims to salvage Argentina's dictatorship with the time-honored strategy of distraction.
27:23A war in the Falklands. A set of islands off the Argentina coast ruled by the British since 1833.
27:34In a very naive way, decided to recover some little islands at the end of the world.
27:41Galtieri and his generals never imagined that Great Britain would respond with force to their occupation of the Falklands.
27:54We must make it seem to the world over that aggressions cannot pay.
27:59They took 1,000 kids to war against one of the most powerful armies in the world, having very, very, very old weapons.
28:12The shipwreck of the Argentinian dictatorship can be seen there.
28:18As with other dictatorships that couldn't adapt to change, Argentina's junta is stuck in an old worldview.
28:26They thought that they were going to have a lot of help from the United States, from the other American countries, and that didn't happen.
28:38Actually, Chile supported the English against Argentina. Pinochet supported Margaret Thatcher.
28:45Argentina's soldiers returned to a country shamed by its defeat.
28:49The humiliated ruling military, says Esteban, ordered the soldiers not to speak of their experiences.
28:56After a couple of months, the Argentinian dictatorship were deadly injured and so that was the beginning of the end.
29:05Days after the British victory, Galtieri is forced out and faces charges for his role in the dirty war and his invasion of the Falklands.
29:16Raul Alfonso is sworn in as the democratically elected president.
29:23Galtieri's dictatorship ends because he inadvertently started a war with a global power.
29:31Other dictators fall because they believe the world is theirs for the taking.
29:40When a dictator falls, it's usually a combination of external forces and bad decisions that brings them down.
29:47Hitler is destroyed when he starts to believe in his own infallibility.
29:54And when his brutal genocidal policies lose him the support of both his henchmen and ordinary German citizens.
30:03Mobutu can't survive changes with the political and economic forces that had sustained him.
30:12And the corruption that permeates his regime eventually destroys his credibility.
30:18But how often do the people rise up and topple a dictator simply because they've had enough?
30:27The answer? Not very often.
30:32Ultimately, the dictator creates fear to such an extent that no one is willing or able to rebel against the regime.
30:43In hindsight, later generations often wonder how it was possible for people to tolerate a brutal dictatorship.
30:53There is no formula which predicts when people will no longer accept tyranny.
30:58For a long while, Germany accepted Hitler.
31:01Very few people did something against Pinochet at the moment.
31:04Very few people tried to do something against the juntas in Argentina.
31:08But almost always, eventually, a brave few begin to fight back.
31:14The same people that one or two years before had a lot of fear of the government,
31:20is it could be the same people that a few years later is going to fight back that power.
31:30One prerequisite to rebellion is knowledge and communication.
31:35As much as a dictator wants to control the flow of information,
31:39it's impossible to shut it down completely, especially in the modern world.
31:45There are many ways for the global community to encourage a shift in government when a country is suffering from a dictatorship.
31:56One of the most effective is opening up the country so that they understand what they're missing.
32:02We've seen that be very effective in countries like Myanmar, where within 10 years of opening up mobile phones and internet access points,
32:11one of the world's most dyed-in-the-wool dictatorships has shifted to relatively free and fair elections,
32:19mainly based on the younger generation's access to the world in a way that didn't exist prior to the year 2000.
32:27Knowledge, now more than ever, is power.
32:32It's not that much fun, necessarily, to be a citizen.
32:37You've got to make up your own mind. You've got to think for yourself.
32:41You have to look at the world and find facts. That can be a lot of work.
32:45It can be easier to be told a story. Dictators like stories. They don't like facts.
32:50But once people both inside and outside the country realize the story is fiction, a dictator's control is at stake.
33:01The press is able to expose a dictator's true agenda.
33:06The role of truth, the role of journalism, if you want, is trying to put things in the real perspective.
33:12If you put the truth on the table, eventually people would take it.
33:18This is where journalists have an impact.
33:22Often, dictatorships end because there are a few people who concentrate on the important facts, the painful facts.
33:32Modern dictatorships have taken the suppression of information a step further than older regimes.
33:41They've tried to undermine the concept of truth itself.
33:46The old ideological dictators were actually trying to educate people about some kind of a future.
33:52Contemporary dictators or authoritarians are trying just to confuse people and teach them that there is no truth.
33:59Because if there is no truth, then you can't trust one another.
34:04And if you can't trust one another, then you can't resist.
34:07The media has a crucial role to play in making it hard for a dictatorship to remain in power.
34:14But activism on the part of regular citizens has proven to be a potent weapon as well.
34:20Nonviolent resistance to violent regimes have been successful, particularly when the world was watching.
34:29But when protest turns violent, it may work against them.
34:34Even dictators require some public sense of legitimacy.
34:40The minute that grassroots protests become violent, all of a sudden the security measures that that tyrant has rolled out become even more legitimate.
34:51The moment that happens, the tyrant gets exactly what they want, which is a threat to their power that has been recorded for the public to see, and therefore a legitimate reason to crush the protest movement and continue to consolidate power.
35:06But what happens when protesters stand their ground?
35:10The discipline that is required for grassroots protests to be completely peaceful is really, really rare to see in action.
35:23Perhaps one of the most remarkable recent examples of nonviolent resistance to dictatorship took place during the 2011 Egyptian revolution that toppled the regime of President Hosni Mubarak.
35:41The focal point of pro-democracy protests was a public square in Cairo, known as Tahrir Square.
35:48People, they want the system to go down.
35:55It's cool.
35:57Tahrir Square is an instructive example of where sitting peacefully does bring about change.
36:06When students are able to link arms and not fight back, the profound message has an impact relatively quickly to bring down a regime that the world's leaders and intelligence agencies believed was very stable and not subject to being toppled.
36:25After 18 days of protest, Mubarak resigned.
36:36By stepping down, President Mubarak responded to the Egyptian people's hunger for change.
36:45Peaceful protests are powerful, but some dictatorships don't go down without a fight.
36:51For a dictator, the world bends to their will.
36:58Any missteps are never their own.
37:01A dictator can never be wrong.
37:03It has to be somebody else's mistake.
37:06But no matter how powerful they get, every dictator's time is limited.
37:10The downfall of dictators typically arises when part of the elite decides it is better for them, it is in their interest to change leader.
37:26Hitler found his end after trying to force his agenda across the globe, killing millions, breaking alliances and overextending his military.
37:38We knew that the Russians were coming, but actually we were never quite told what would happen.
37:45Dictators intend to shut down their nations from outside investment and take a very isolationist policy economically and politically.
37:55We've seen that be the source of eventual destruction for dictatorships from Hitler to Stalin.
38:01Nazi rule came to an end when Hitler ended his life in an underground bunker.
38:14In the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin bled his country dry economically, yet held onto power until his last breath and beyond.
38:22After the dictator died, no one wanted to claim him dead, for fear he would wake and they would be held accountable for dissension.
38:35In Zaire, Mobutu shed his power with the end of the Cold War.
38:40His reliance on the support of external allies and their need for Zaire's resources left him unable to adapt to change.
38:48The moment that you're abusing other people's rights, you've killed a number of people, you have a lot of enemies, now you don't want to step down.
38:58You're hoping that you can ride your time all the way to the end.
39:02Mobutu's end would come from cancer.
39:07In Iraq, Saddam lost his power after stepping over the line with former allies and the assumption he intended to do harm with weapons of mass destruction.
39:18He would pay for the murder and torture done under his regime through the courts.
39:24The cost, his life.
39:32In Cuba, an ailing Fidel Castro would hand over power to his brother in the hopes he would carry the dictatorial torch.
39:39But with the death of the one-time liberator, so too fell the dictatorship.
39:48In Chile, Pinochet's ego led him to believe he was loved by his people and untouchable by the laws of man.
39:55His attempt to prove this with open and free elections left him without power.
40:01He was convicted for crimes against humanity, but would skirt the law until his death from natural causes.
40:09There's a temptation to see dictatorship as a thing of the past.
40:21History does not move in only one direction.
40:25We do not only move from democracy to better democracies, we also move from dictatorship back to worse dictatorships and from democracies back to dictatorships.
40:42Under the right circumstances, it's possible for a tyrant to appear on the scene without citizens realizing until it's too late.
40:55As citizens of all societies, we have to keep our eyes out and be vigilant in order to prevent repeats of the past.
41:06Because we know what happened in Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia, and then various other places that led to mass human casualties.
41:18Some who've personally experienced the violence and terror of a dictatorship are understandably skeptical of the view that tyranny is a thing of the past.
41:31Well, never again, never again looks very nice on paper, but it's going on continuously.
41:40When I was released in 1945, I almost said, never again, I don't trust that.
41:53I need to get out of Germany because it could happen tomorrow again, and I was right.
42:02It's been said that the price of liberty is eternal vigilance.
42:07We have now the possibility of facing what happened, and we can raise our voice to say,
42:17which means never again.
42:19I think it's important not to see the history of dictatorship or one person rule as a kind of pageant where we choose the one that we think is most important.
42:31All of them have a history. In every case, we need to understand not just the man, but also the reasons why that person could come to power, and those reasons lead back to us.
42:44To us.
Recomendado
43:54
1:35:32
19:41
2:25
5:56
2:21
51:52
1:08
33:49
59:28
59:30
1:20:56
43:57
52:50
57:58
55:23
52:32
Seja a primeira pessoa a comentar