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00:00La Iglesia de Jesucristo
00:30La Iglesia de Jesucristo
01:00La Iglesia de Jesucristo
01:29La Iglesia de Jesucristo
01:59La Iglesia de Jesucristo
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03:11La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:13La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:45La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:47La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:49La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:51La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:53La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:55La Iglesia de Jesucristo
03:57La Iglesia de Jesucristo
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04:05La Iglesia de Jesucristo
04:07La Iglesia de Jesucristo
04:09La Iglesia de Jesucristo
04:11La Iglesia de Jesucristo
04:13La Iglesia de Jesucristo
04:15La Iglesia de Jesucristo
04:17La Iglesia de Jesucristo
04:19...y fue por NASA's foremost rocket expert, Wernher von Braun,
04:23...who had always favored the big rocket approach,
04:26...and now told Hubolt to cut the Lunar Rendezvous crap.
04:31Wernher von Braun had a very strong ego,
04:35...was very popular in the United States,
04:37...very famous in the United States because of his appearance on television,
04:42...and believed very strongly in the idea of taking a big rocket to the moon.
04:47In desperation, Hubolt finally wrote directly to NASA's top leadership.
04:55In these letters, Dr. Hubolt said,
04:58...I know that I'm stepping out of line here.
05:01I know I might even get fired because I'm writing this letter,
05:04...but I think it's so important to bring this to your attention
05:06...that I'm willing to risk my career in doing it.
05:10He said something like,
05:12...I know I may be a pain in the neck and I shouldn't be writing this letter to you, and so on.
05:16...but I feel so strongly about this, I feel impelled to write you.
05:21And he said in these letters to Dr. Siemens that the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous idea
05:26...was the only way to get us to the moon.
05:30Dr. Hubolt didn't say,
05:32...I think it's one way, or he didn't say,
05:34...I think it's the best way.
05:36He said,
05:36...I think it's the only way.
05:37It was rather strident in the way it was written, and my first reaction was,
05:45...I'd like some way to get that son of a gun off my back.
05:51But Siemens was sufficiently intrigued to recommend that Hubolt's proposal should at least get a serious hearing.
05:58It was a turning point.
06:03At a meeting in June 1962, called to hammer out a solution, Von Braun took everybody by surprise.
06:12Everybody was getting together to, again, try and talk about what decision they were going to make on going to the moon.
06:19The Von Braun team gave a presentation, and when they finished, Werner stood up, and he said,
06:28...I'm really proud of our group.
06:30They said,
06:30...that was a wonderful presentation.
06:32You considered everything very, very carefully, but I have to tell you that that's not what I'm going to recommend.
06:44I'm going to recommend that we go Lunar Orbit Rendezvous.
06:47It was such a surprise to everybody that even his own staff people, several days later, had a private meeting with him, and they said,
06:57...why in the world did you say that?
06:59What led you to believe that?
07:00We were completely surprised that you decided to announce for Lunar Orbit Rendezvous.
07:09Belatedly, Von Braun had recognized it was the only way.
07:13And in the fall of 1962, U.S. aircraft manufacturers competed to build what became known as the Lunar Excursion Module, or LEM.
07:25One of the competitors was a small aircraft company on Long Island.
07:43The Grumman Corporation had already spent time and money investigating the idea of a dedicated Lunar Lander.
07:58For well over a year, they had been studying this problem of how to get to the Moon, and because they had been studying it on their own, with their own money, for longer than all these other contractors, they submitted a much more detailed design.
08:13Grumman's proposal was made up of two distinct stages, each with its own engine.
08:20A descent stage would take the astronauts down to the lunar surface.
08:27And then, when they wanted to return, a tiny ascent module would separate, leaving the bulky descent stage on the Moon, and return the astronauts to the orbiting command module.
08:42They really understood that weight was so critical, you wanted to leave the heaviest part behind, and to get off the Moon.
08:57Mission completed. This final stage of the LEM would also be discarded.
09:03Nasa liked it, and in November 1962, Grumman won the contract to build the most complicated and sophisticated spacecraft ever conceived.
09:28But the process had taken almost two years, and Grumman would spend the next five making up for lost time.
09:36As Grumman now got down to the detailed design work, they were hampered by the fact that nobody knew much about the surface they were going to land on.
10:01You must remember how many things we didn't know at the very beginning.
10:08This expert was telling us that there are ten meters of impalpable dust on the surface of the Moon.
10:16And we worried tremendously about tipping over.
10:24In fact, we made, I think, something like 400 different computer runs, because we didn't understand what the dynamics of the landing would really be.
10:41But the most pressing issue was weight.
10:58For every pound the LEM weighed, it would take four pounds of fuel to lift it off the Earth.
11:04Grumman's original design has a large spherical top half, the ascent stage, with these very large glass windows.
11:15Well, there's no way you could have those heavy glass windows.
11:19Weight was too precious, so they had to go to much smaller windows.
11:24There were also seats.
11:26Well, in zero gravity or one-sixth gravity, you really didn't need seats.
11:31So, the seats were taken out.
11:33In the early concepts for a lunar lander, there's no ladder on the front leg.
11:39Because why do they need a ladder?
11:41There's only one-sixth gravity on the Moon.
11:43What if we just give them a rope that they hang from the hatch down to the lunar surface,
11:47they climb down a rope, they climb back up it, we save weight.
11:50Grumman builds a full-scale wooden mock-up.
11:55Astronauts try climbing down the rope.
11:57Nobody can get backed up the rope.
12:00So, they had to add a ladder down the front leg.
12:05As the prototypes evolved, the one constant was change.
12:14Astronauts come to Grumman to test the design.
12:19And what they found is that an astronaut wearing a square backpack can't fit out the round hatch.
12:36So, Grumman deletes the round hatch in the front.
12:38They put instead a big square hatch.
12:41Finally, in the spring of 1965, NASA, worried design changes would never stop, imposed a freeze.
12:55It was an entirely independent spacecraft with its own motors, fuel, life support system and navigation equipment.
13:07To some at the time, it seemed excessive.
13:10They couldn't have known just how important it would turn out to be.
13:17After two and a half years of preparation, engineers at the Grumman facility on Long Island finally began building what many regarded as the first true spaceship.
13:32It was built in one of the world's first clean rooms.
13:36In zero gravity, any floating foreign body would be a hazard.
13:41Everybody's wearing surgical suits, white suits, booties, gloves, hats.
13:46If you have a beard, you wear a face mask.
13:48They even preferred people who didn't bathe very often because they didn't want skin flaking off and possibly floating around in there and causing problems.
13:55Then, just in case there was any debris, each limb was turned upside down and shaken.
14:13Grumman puts it in a tumbler, rotates it upside down and actually spins it around and shakes it out.
14:19And every stage, there was all sorts of bits and metal shavings and rivets would fall out of it.
14:25All the kind of things you don't want floating around in space that could possibly short out an electrical system or somebody could breathe in.
14:32But in the urban confines of Long Island, the one thing Grumman couldn't do was the hazardous business of testing rocket motors.
14:51For this, they would need somewhere much more remote.
14:56In the early 1960s, the company went to White Sands in New Mexico.
15:13Here, in the middle of the desert, they built an engine testing facility.
15:18Lynn Radcliffe was the first manager.
15:21When I came aboard that first day, I knew absolutely nothing about rocketry.
15:28It was almost as though I had walked into a foreign country.
15:34The LEM was equipped with two very different rockets.
15:44The first, the so-called descent engine, would take the LEM from the command module down toward the lunar surface.
15:56It was an entirely new and untried piece of technology.
16:01Up until this point in history, no one had ever built a rocket engine with a throttle.
16:05Either they were on or they were off.
16:07But in order to land on the moon now, you have to have a throttle so you can slow the spacecraft gradually to come in for landing.
16:16This was an unbelievable maneuver when you stop and think about it.
16:22You're sitting on a column of thrust, just hovering there like a helicopter.
16:30And then, as you let it go with the throttle a little bit, you lower it just at a few feet per second until you make contact.
16:41All of this is an amazing set of requirements to put on anyone trying to design a rocket.
16:52But it was the module's second rocket, the so-called ascent engine, that caused Grumman the most lost sleep.
17:01It didn't need a throttle, but it did need to work with absolute reliability.
17:08You're totally dependent on the ascent engine to work, to put you back in orbit.
17:17If for any reason the ascent engine failed to work, the astronauts are doomed.
17:27To keep it simple, it used so-called hypergolic propellants, a rocket fuel and an oxidizer that explode on contact.
17:41There were no pumps and no igniter.
17:44But the simplicity came at a price.
18:03The fuels were extremely toxic.
18:09We got so familiar with what oxidizer looks like when it leaks.
18:16You have this big red cloud.
18:21You couldn't absorb more than five parts per million on a continuing basis.
18:30It would start to eat your lungs away.
18:34So if we had a spill, and if the wind was just right, we had to get the police out and get people to evacuate.
18:42But what really worried them was that the fuel was so corrosive that at the end of a test, each engine had to be rebuilt.
19:01It meant the final assembly of an engine could never be tested.
19:14Unbelievably, the first time these engines would ever have been fired.
19:20Ever.
19:21No check out at the factory.
19:23The first time would be when they were fired in their mission.
19:32Imperfection was not an option.
19:35They had to be perfect.
19:40It was a situation nobody at Grumman would ever feel comfortable with.
19:46Meanwhile, on Long Island, engineers were combating yet another hazard of spaceflight.
20:03In space, you're facing the sun, it's 240 degrees.
20:07The dark side is 240 degrees below zero.
20:10You have to insulate the spacecraft as well as possible because there's huge fuel tanks in there.
20:15And the fuel is going to boil at 100 degrees and freeze at 30 degrees.
20:22Such a huge temperature variation could also cause the craft to buckle.
20:29Yet Grumman couldn't afford heavy heat shields.
20:34Fortunately for the space program, DuPont had developed this new material.
20:39It was aluminized mylar.
20:42It was a gold color and they found if you built it up to perhaps 25 layers, it's an excellent insulator.
20:49The LEM was coated in mylar.
20:56To many engineers, the final vehicle was an insult to every notion of what a spacecraft should look like.
21:08But in the vacuum of space, it didn't need to be streamlined.
21:15It was one of the weirdest and most improbable flying machines ever conceived.
21:34By the mid-1960s, with just over four years to go before Kennedy's deadline, the Grumman facility on Long Island began rolling out the first full-scale lunar modules.
21:47For some years, astronauts had been training on a simulator known as the Flying Bedstead.
22:02It's basically a jet engine in the middle, little rocket engines all around it on the outside, just like the lunar module and astronauts sat in a little capsule in the front.
22:17And they would take off vertically and hover and try to simulate landing on the moon.
22:23It was unstable and dangerous, and the astronauts hated it.
22:38Neil Armstrong had to eject that right before it crashed.
22:48At some point in the program, they actually stopped using it, because it was just, it was a lot safer to land on the moon than it was to fly this machine down in Texas.
23:04It was just too unstable.
23:07Now, as the completed LEM became available, they were able to train on the real thing.
23:23It was installed in a test facility with a camera that projected images of an artificial lunar surface through the windows.
23:30They would actually run through complete missions in the lunar module.
23:35Next to it, there was a desk where the instructors sat, and they would introduce all sorts of faults, flip a switch, something would go wrong.
23:42The astronauts in the simulator would have to deal with it and try to figure out what was wrong.
23:47They had to salvage the mission.
23:54But the clock was ticking.
23:57It was time to move beyond simulations and take the LEM into space.
24:04In the summer of 1967, the first space-ready lunar module was transported to Cape Kennedy.
24:21It would be mounted on Apollo 4, the first unmanned test of the LEM in space.
24:28For the people at Grumman, it was the final test.
24:34But it was not to be.
24:39Almost immediately, things began to go wrong.
24:43NASA gets a hold of it, they start running tests on it, and NASA discovers this vehicle is a mess.
24:49They find hundreds of problems, things that weren't built right, weren't installed right, electrical wires that are frayed, possibly broken.
25:01And most alarming of all, there are fuel leaks everywhere in the system.
25:05Grumman, under huge pressure from the schedule, had failed to complete the pre-flight checks.
25:18But NASA couldn't wait, and the Apollo 4 mission went ahead without the LEM.
25:25The whole incident of this first lunar module really led to great embarrassment on Grumman's part.
25:42Then, as Grumman raced to repair the leaks, there was a second problem.
25:55As the lunar module was pressure tested in a vacuum chamber, a window blew out.
26:01There's debris all over the place, wires evidently nicked that you could see with the naked eye.
26:08There are physical holes in the structure.
26:11And I was like, oh my God, here I am, I'm on the job two weeks, look what happened.
26:19While his colleagues worried about why it had happened, Rocamboli was told to clear up the mess.
26:27He asked NASA what to do.
26:31NASA came back with criteria for cleanliness.
26:36If you have particles of this size and so many per cubic inch, you know, the astronaut will get an itchy eye maybe.
26:46If there are so many more particles and they're bigger, he'll get a sore throat.
26:50If they're bigger still, he could bleed.
26:52If they're bigger still, he's in danger of his life.
26:56It would mean going through the LEM with a fine-tooth comb.
27:00The technicians would go in there with filter paper and camel-haired brushes and they would clean what they could not see.
27:07And they would collect it on the filter paper.
27:10That was sent back to a Grumman quality lab.
27:13But what had caused the blowout?
27:16Was there a design fault?
27:19Had the window been badly fitted?
27:21Or had it been damaged during construction?
27:23Grumman was never sure.
27:24The solution was never one of those that gave you a completely warm feeling.
27:35Every window was checked and replaced in the hope that it would be all right.
27:47And six months later, Apollo 5 took an unmanned lunar module into space.
27:54Twelve months later, Apollo 9 carried the first manned lunar module into space.
28:07How does that sports car handle, Jim?
28:09It's pretty nice.
28:12And Apollo 10 took a manned LEM around the moon.
28:17This edge is just beautiful.
28:20I lay my hands off to the guys in the trench. I love them.
28:24Yeah.
28:25It was time to take the LEM down to the lunar surface.
28:30How's the view, Tim?
28:32Charlie, it might sound corny, but the view is really out of this world.
28:37Liftoff. We have a liftoff. 32 minutes past the hour.
28:42Liftoff on Apollo 11.
28:47Power is clear.
28:49On July 16th, 1969, Apollo 11 blasted off from Cape Kennedy.
29:00Some 72 hours later, the lunar lander undocked from the command module
29:06and headed for the moon.
29:10It was the final challenge.
29:14Hundreds of thousands of man-hours of work, worry and effort
29:18were about to be put to the test.
29:22My heart was in my mouth.
29:27Altitude 1600.
29:29We'd come to a moment of truth that would last only 12 minutes.
29:34If I could have held my breath for 12 minutes, I probably would have.
29:39700, 321 down. 33 degrees.
29:41Grumman had simulated the maneuver hundreds of times, but the reality was proving different.
29:49The astronauts were heading for a boulder field.
29:53No level? No level.
29:54Yes.
29:5620 feet.
29:57As Armstrong searched for a safe landing place, the fuel began to run dangerously low.
30:04The only call-outs from now on will be fuel.
30:06We had very small margins.
30:09You know, 120 seconds margin for landing.
30:14Sounds ridiculously short.
30:1760. 60 seconds.
30:1960 seconds.
30:21We were all counting seconds as to how much fuel we thought remained.
30:2830 seconds.
30:3030 seconds.
30:31Over to...
30:32It just seemed an interminable period of time before we got those wonderful words that the Eagle had landed.
30:46Roger. Tranquility. We copy on the ground.
30:50The Lem had landed with less than 20 seconds of spare fuel.
30:54I can't describe this to you in words, but let me tell you, there was a relaxation that I think all of us felt.
31:04It was such a tremendous relief that they had made it safely onto the moon and they were going to go out and walk on the moon and all those wonderful things.
31:14Among those in the audience at Mission Control was Werner Von Braun.
31:24Dr. Werner Von Braun turned around and looked back and he was searching for somebody and he finally saw John Hobart.
31:33And he said over all of the shouting, he said, John, you were right. We wouldn't be here without you.
31:39Dr. Werner Von Braun
31:59But as the world celebrated, Grumman's engineers knew their most testing moment was yet to come.
32:06Would their ascent engine do its job?
32:11Two astronauts were going to climb into this thing and essentially they were going to press a button.
32:17And if it worked, it worked. And if it didn't, there weren't many things that they could do about it.
32:22Once you press that button, that was it.
32:26Roger, our guidance recommendation is you're cleared for takeoff.
32:32Roger, understand. We're number one on the runway.
32:36Roger.
32:38All my coworkers were standing around in the aisles looking up at a monitor panel along with me.
32:44And this is really the definition of a white knuckle situation.
32:50Eagle Houston, you're looking good there.
32:52That moment of liftoff was awful. Just plain awful.
33:00Roger.
33:02Is there an anxiety? Absolutely. Absolutely there's an anxiety.
33:07One you can't believe. Like, is this going to work? We know we did everything, but God, it better work.
33:13I don't think that anyone could, at that time, tell you a hundred percent that it was going to work.
33:20Five, eight, seven.
33:22Seven.
33:23It was, it was really quite tense.
33:27Proceed.
33:28It worked like a dream.
33:29They started putting TV cameras on later landers, when you could see the ascent engine.
33:42And it didn't build up like a Saturn V, where you saw the flames coming out, and it slowly lifted off.
33:49It went up like a shot, like, wow!
33:51One thousand feet high, eighty feet per second, vertical rise.
34:01The LEM had performed faultlessly, and at Grumman they assumed there could be nothing more terrifying or exciting to come.
34:09Uh, Houston, we've had a problem.
34:20Stand by it there, Dean, we're looking at it.
34:26In the spring of 1970, as Apollo 13 headed towards the moon, Dick Wild received a call in the middle of the night.
34:35The telephone message was unmistakable.
34:40We were being called in to the plant early, because an explosion aboard the command and service module had taken out the electrical and oxygen system.
34:55We are, uh, we are bringing something out into space.
34:58Some 200,000 miles from Earth, the command module had been left powerless and disabled.
35:07As I drove into the plant, the coincidence to me was amazing.
35:15This was Monday, April 13, 1970, and this was Apollo 13.
35:21All of a sudden, everyone's attention is riveted on Apollo.
35:31All around the world, people are watching what's going on.
35:37Praying for the astronauts, are they going to make it? Are they going to die in space?
35:40It was the nightmare scenario.
35:50They were hurtling uncontrollably into space with diminishing supplies of fuel, electricity, and oxygen.
35:58Mission control, we're looking, uh, now looking towards an alternate mission.
36:02It was the most serious, worrisome thing, because of the imminent possibility of losing our astronauts.
36:17With the command module out of action, there was only one hope.
36:21The crew retreated into the lunar module, which carried its own supplies of oxygen and fuel.
36:36But what to do now?
36:38The LEM's highly specialized rocket motor lacked the power to break their momentum.
36:42At mission control, there were desperate meetings.
36:53There was one possibility.
37:01If they could use the LEM's motor to slingshot them around the moon,
37:06it might just be possible for them to return safely to the Earth.
37:10It was a huge gamble.
37:19We all knew that the crew was in a dire situation.
37:23A rescue like this had never been attempted.
37:28So, in the background, there was always the concern that this effort was going to fail.
37:35People were glued to their televisions and their radios, listening to what was going on, and there was certainly concern that we might have lost three astronauts.
37:47But the maneuver worked.
37:48Slowly the craft curved around the moon in what was known as a free return trajectory to Earth.
38:04The astronauts were on their way home.
38:10Okay, Aquarius, you're looking good.
38:12But did they have the fuel and power to travel the quarter of a million miles back to the Earth?
38:25Everything depended on the LEM.
38:27It had been designed to keep two people alive for 50 hours.
38:35Now it was being asked to keep three people alive for up to 100.
38:39There was a gradual buildup of carbon dioxide.
38:47The LEM had been equipped with finite supplies of lithium hydroxide, the agent used to remove carbon dioxide from the recirculating air supply.
38:57Once again, there were desperate meetings among NASA's engineers.
39:09There was one inspired possibility.
39:13If they could raid the command module for extra supplies of lithium hydroxide, they had a chance.
39:20But that was not as simple as it sounded.
39:24No one had foreseen the kind of problem where the LEM would be used as a lifeboat,
39:31and unfortunately the command module lithium was packaged in square cartridges,
39:38and the lunar modules were packaged as round cartridges.
39:42So the problem became, how do you fit a square cartridge into a round canister?
39:50NASA suggested using duct tape and tubing from the spacesuits to jury rig a connection.
40:01It worked.
40:04I think all of us had a sense of tension in those hours that we've not felt before or since.
40:14Finally, as the craft approached the Earth, the astronauts faced the ultimate challenge.
40:25How to safely smash through the Earth's atmosphere?
40:34The answer was to return to the crippled command module with its protective heat shield
40:39and, to minimize friction, discard the LEM, affectionately christened Aquarius.
40:45Farewell Aquarius.
40:48Farewell Aquarius. Thank you.
40:56This is Apollo Control Houston at 141 hours, 31 minutes into the flight.
41:02We've had lunar module jettison.
41:03Then, as they blasted through the Earth's atmosphere, there was a break in communication.
41:15That was an awfully worrisome time.
41:28We did not hear from them.
41:31You can't have radio communications while this thing is going through that entry
41:37until it comes out to a point where you can pick it up again.
41:42There was what felt like an interminable wait before the Apollo 13 parachutes finally came into sight.
42:01Odyssey Houston, we show you on the mains. It really looks great.
42:04An extremely loud applause here in Mission Control.
42:09I think, singly, that was the high point of the program,
42:15because we had saved astronauts from imminent danger.
42:19It was even more important in retrospect than the first landing.
42:23The sense of relief was, you could feel it. It was really quite emotional.
42:38The lunar module had not only performed far beyond its design limits,
42:42it had brought the astronauts back from a death too horrible to contemplate.
42:49You would think that, yeah, I could be doing a little breast-beating now,
42:55but I really don't feel that.
42:58What I really feel is thankfulness that it happened.
43:03I'm really grateful that it happened.
43:07For the Grumman engineers who had devoted nearly every minute of their waking lives,
43:13for nearly a decade, to building the lunar module,
43:17it was the crowning moment.
43:20Everybody who wanted to be part of that program,
43:22everybody was proud to be on the program.
43:24And that was a wonderful feeling.
43:54Thank you.
43:55Thank you.
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