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Hamayun Aziz
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00:00:13Hi. I'm Carl Weber. Welcome to Video Aided Instruction's English grammar series. This
00:00:21is the sentence structure program. You know, language is one of the most complicated human
00:00:27behaviors. Virtually every human being learns to use language by the time they're two or
00:00:33three years old, and everyone uses language every day in one way or another, either in
00:00:39speaking, in reading, or in writing. Therefore, everyone influences how language is used.
00:00:46They influence how language is spoken, heard, written, and understood. Therefore, the study
00:00:52of language is one of the most complicated of all subjects, and almost any grammar rule
00:00:58or rule about how to use language correctly is bound to have exceptions. In this program,
00:01:05we'll focus on the least you need to know. In other words, we'll try to take the complicated
00:01:10subject of grammar and make it easy for you. What we want to do is provide you with the
00:01:16rules and information that you need to communicate in English clearly, effectively, and correctly.
00:01:23Everyone is able to convey their meaning eventually. No one has ever starved to death because they
00:01:29weren't able to convey the fact that they were hungry. But some forms of language are more
00:01:35likely to please, to impress, and to influence other people. Therefore, using correct grammar
00:01:43and being able to express yourself properly is going to be more effective in your everyday life.
00:01:49It's a little bit like using proper table manners or dressing appropriately. It's not strictly necessary,
00:01:55but it's a very good idea. In addition, knowing and using the proper rules of English grammar
00:02:02will enable you to score higher on tests of English and to do better in school. So for all these
00:02:09reasons,
00:02:09studying and learning the basics of English grammar is also very important for anyone who is studying
00:02:15English as a second language. With that in mind, let's begin this program dealing with sentence structure.
00:02:27Let's begin by discussing what is a sentence. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete
00:02:34thought. You can contrast a sentence with a sentence fragment. A sentence fragment is a kind of mistake
00:02:43that people sometimes make in writing English. A sentence fragment is a group of words that doesn't
00:02:49express a complete thought. Now sentence fragments are often used when people are casually speaking to
00:02:56one another. But a sentence fragment is considered a mistake in writing. Here's the reason. A sentence fragment,
00:03:04a group of words that doesn't express a complete thought by itself, may be clear in a conversation
00:03:12because people are talking back and forth, and this context gives meaning to the sentence fragment. In writing,
00:03:20however, there is no conversation to give a context and therefore to explain the meaning of the sentence fragment.
00:03:26So a sentence fragment which might be clear in conversation is not clear in writing.
00:03:32That's why when you're writing English, you want to write in complete sentences, not in sentence fragments.
00:03:39Consider, for example, this group of words. Out to lunch. Is this a sentence or a sentence fragment?
00:03:47Well, it's a sentence fragment because it doesn't express a complete thought. Out to lunch doesn't tell us
00:03:54who is out to lunch or explain what the meaning of those words out to lunch really is.
00:04:01The words out to lunch could become part of a complete sentence, of course. You could say,
00:04:08Susan and I are going out to lunch or Frank was out to lunch when I visited his office.
00:04:15Now we have a complete thought and therefore a complete sentence. But by themselves, the words out to lunch
00:04:22are a fragment rather than a complete sentence. Or consider these words. Maybe later.
00:04:30Is this a sentence or a sentence fragment? Again, it's a sentence fragment. The words maybe later
00:04:37by themselves don't express a complete thought. Now you could imagine having a conversation in which
00:04:43someone would say, maybe later, in answer to a question. In a conversation, a sentence fragment like
00:04:50this can be meaningful and can be understood. For example, you might say to someone, oh, do you feel like
00:04:58having a bite of lunch right now? And your friend might answer, maybe later. In the context of the
00:05:05conversation, you can understand what the sentence fragment means. But if the words maybe later
00:05:10appeared by themselves in a piece of writing, you probably wouldn't understand what the words were
00:05:16referring to. That's what makes it a sentence fragment and therefore incorrect in writing. So writing in
00:05:24English must consist of complete sentences. In writing, a sentence always begins with a capital letter.
00:05:30That's one of the larger letters that stands out on the page and indicates in English the beginning
00:05:37of a sentence. A sentence always ends with a punctuation mark. And there are a few different
00:05:43choices for punctuation marks that you can use to end a sentence. The most common punctuation mark
00:05:49to use to end a sentence is a period. The alternative choices are a question mark or an exclamation point.
00:05:59In a moment, we'll explain exactly how you would decide whether to use a period, a question mark,
00:06:05or an exclamation point to mark the end of a sentence. But in any case, the punctuation mark is necessary
00:06:12at the end of the sentence because it makes it easy for the reader to see when one sentence ends
00:06:17and the next
00:06:18one begins. Now in English, there are four main kinds of sentences. Declarative sentences, interrogative
00:06:27sentences, exclamatory sentences, and imperative sentences. Let's define each one and look at an
00:06:35example. A declarative sentence states a fact. Take a look at this example. The sun is shining today.
00:06:45This sentence states a fact about what today's weather is like. Therefore, it's a declarative
00:06:51sentence. The vast majority of English sentences that you'll encounter in reading and writing
00:06:57are declarative sentences. Notice that this sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a
00:07:03period. Almost all declarative sentences end with periods. And again, this is the most common type
00:07:10of sentence that you're likely to encounter or that you'll be writing for school or for work. An
00:07:17interrogative sentence asks a question. Here's an example. Do you have any plans for this afternoon?
00:07:26When I say this interrogative sentence, I'm asking a question of whoever is listening to me. I'm asking
00:07:33them what they're planning to do this afternoon. An interrogative sentence ends with a question mark.
00:07:40That makes it clear to the reader that a question is being asked. And again, like all sentences,
00:07:46it begins with a capital letter. The third type of sentence is an exclamatory sentence.
00:07:53An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong emotion. Look at this example.
00:07:59What a beautiful day for a picnic. Maybe you could tell from the way I read that sentence aloud
00:08:07that I'm expressing a strong emotion or a strong feeling about what beautiful weather we have today.
00:08:14This makes it an exclamatory sentence. And it ends with an exclamation point. This is a special
00:08:22mark of punctuation that's used to indicate to the reader that strong emotions or feelings are being
00:08:29expressed in the sentence. The fourth type of sentence is an imperative sentence. An imperative sentence
00:08:37makes a request or gives an order. The person who hears an imperative sentence is being required to do
00:08:45something. Look at this example. Come with me. This is an imperative sentence because I'm inviting the
00:08:53person who hears the sentence to do something. Namely, to come with me. An imperative sentence may end with a
00:09:01period or with an exclamation point. It all depends on how forceful the request or command or order is intended
00:09:12to be. A command or order which is given with a great deal of emotion and feeling and forcefulness might
00:09:20be ended with an
00:09:21exclamation point. Otherwise, a period will do. In this example, we've used an exclamation point to indicate that strong
00:09:29feelings are behind the invitation. Come with me.
00:09:33These, then, are the four types of sentences. A declarative sentence, an interrogative sentence, an exclamatory
00:09:41sentence, and an imperative sentence. In most writing, declarative sentences are by far the most common.
00:09:49Interrogative sentences come second most frequent, and exclamatory and imperative sentences are very,
00:09:58very rare in writing. They're often used in speaking and conversation, but rarely in writing. So, for the
00:10:06purposes of English grammar, as it affects your work and school use of English, the declarative and
00:10:13interrogative sentences are the most important. In your study guide, we've provided you with some exercises
00:10:20which will help to reinforce and allow you to practice the information and skills that we're covering in
00:10:26this program. Turn to your study guide now and go to the first exercise there, which deals with this
00:10:32topic of what is a sentence and the four types of sentences.
00:10:43Did you find this exercise difficult? Your job was to read five sentences and for each one to decide
00:10:51whether the sentence was a declarative sentence, an interrogative sentence, an exclamatory sentence, or an
00:10:59imperative sentence. We also threw in one sentence fragment, that is, a group of words that looks like a
00:11:06sentence but doesn't express a complete thought. Remember that in writing, a sentence fragment is incorrect.
00:11:13Let's look at the first sentence. When will tomorrow morning's band rehearsal begin?
00:11:20Perhaps you can tell by reading this sentence that it is asking a question. Therefore, this is an
00:11:27interrogative sentence and it needs to end with a question mark. So, that's the correct answer for
00:11:33this first question. Let's look at the second sentence. Always read the safety instructions before
00:11:40using a new power tool. What kind of sentence is this? Is it a declarative sentence? Does it state a
00:11:48fact?
00:11:49No, not really. Is it an interrogative sentence? Is it asking a question of you, the hearer? No, it isn't.
00:11:57Is it an exclamatory sentence? Is it expressing strong emotion? No, not really that either. It is an imperative sentence.
00:12:06Remember, an imperative sentence is one that makes a request or gives an order. And in this case,
00:12:14the sentence is giving an order or making a request of whoever reads it. It is telling that person that
00:12:20they ought to do something, namely to read the safety instructions before using a new power tool.
00:12:26Therefore, this is an imperative sentence. Remember that we said an imperative sentence may end with
00:12:33either a period or an exclamation point. It all depends on whether strong feeling or strong emotion is being
00:12:41expressed. In this case, no particularly strong emotion is being expressed, and therefore the correct way to end
00:12:49this sentence would be with a period. Let's look at our next example. Having spent over two hours working on
00:12:57her dance
00:12:58routine. Could you tell that this is the sentence fragment? This is a sentence fragment because it doesn't express a
00:13:07complete thought. There are a lot of words here, and we can see that someone spent over two hours working
00:13:14on her dance
00:13:15routine, but we can't really tell what's going on because it doesn't say who spent two hours on her dance
00:13:23routine.
00:13:23Therefore, the person who is doing the action is missing from this sentence, and what results is not a complete
00:13:30thought.
00:13:30We don't really understand what the person who wrote this sentence is trying to convey. This is a sentence fragment,
00:13:38not a complete sentence, and if it appeared in a piece of writing, it would be considered incorrect.
00:13:44Therefore, this is the sentence fragment and shouldn't be given any final punctuation because it's really
00:13:49not a complete sentence. Let's look at the next example. The local wildlife refuge is home to over 70
00:13:58species of birds. This sentence states a fact. Therefore, it's a declarative sentence, the most common
00:14:06type of sentence in English, and it ought to be concluded with a simple period.
00:14:12Let's look at the final sentence. That was a fabulous party. Here is a sentence that expresses
00:14:20strong emotion. This is an exclamatory sentence. It ought to be marked with an exclamation point,
00:14:27which indicates that it's a sentence expressing strong feelings. The person who wrote or speaks
00:14:34this sentence is talking about how much they enjoyed the party and is expressing that with a lot of
00:14:40feeling. That's what makes this an exclamatory sentence and means that it should end with an
00:14:45exclamation point. Did you get all five of these questions right? I hope so. Now we're ready to move on
00:14:52to lesson two.
00:14:58Now we know what a sentence is, and we also know what the four basic kinds of sentences are.
00:15:05But let's take a step back. Remember that the topic for this program is sentence structure.
00:15:12Now structure refers to the way anything is constructed or built or made. For example,
00:15:19a house is a structure that's made out of wood, bricks, and other materials. What is a sentence constructed from?
00:15:27Well, of course, the most basic unit is the word. But before we talk about individual words,
00:15:34we need to talk about some of the bigger parts that go to make up the structure of a sentence.
00:15:39In
00:15:40particular, there are two big parts into which most sentences can be divided.
00:15:46These two main parts are the subject and the predicate. Let's talk about each in a little more
00:15:52detail. The subject tells what the sentence is talking about. Now, the subject of a sentence may
00:15:59be only one word long, or it may include a number of words. In any case, the single most important
00:16:07word
00:16:07in the subject is the simple subject. The other words in the subject are there to give more information
00:16:14about the simple subject. And we'll see an example in a moment. The subject then is one part of the
00:16:21sentence, and the rest of the sentence, whatever is not part of the subject, is considered part of the
00:16:28predicate, which is the other main building block of a sentence. The predicate describes something that the
00:16:36subject is or does. The most important word in the predicate is called the verb. A verb is a word
00:16:44that
00:16:44expresses action or state of being. So we now have two main parts to the sentence. We have the subject,
00:16:52which names what the sentence is talking about, and the predicate, which tells what the subject is or does.
00:17:00Once again, within the predicate, there is one most important word to focus on, which is called the verb,
00:17:06and all the other words that are in the predicate are there to give more information about what the
00:17:12subject does. Let's take a look at a couple of examples of sentences and see how they can be divided
00:17:19into subject and predicate. Look at this example. My younger sister Ingrid once worked as a costume designer.
00:17:29Let's begin by looking for the subject of this sentence. Is there a word or a group of words that
00:17:35explains what the sentence is talking about? Yes, in this case, the first four words of the sentence
00:17:42make up the subject. Those four words tell us what the sentence is about. The sentence is about
00:17:49my younger sister Ingrid. Is there one word within that subject which is the most important word,
00:17:56the word that tells you specifically what the sentence is about? Yes, it's the last word, Ingrid. So
00:18:03Ingrid is the simple subject of this sentence. The other words in the subject are there to give more
00:18:10information about the simple subject. So the words, my younger sister, are there to give more
00:18:16information about Ingrid. They tell us a little bit more about who Ingrid is. Okay, if the first four
00:18:24words of this sentence are the subject, then the rest of the sentence must be the predicate. Remember that
00:18:30the predicate describes something that the subject is or does. Do the other words in this sentence
00:18:37describe something that Ingrid is or does? Yes, they describe something that Ingrid did at one time.
00:18:44Once worked as a costume designer. All of that is the predicate of the sentence. Notice how the subject
00:18:51and the predicate work together to express a complete thought. Either one by itself would be a sentence
00:18:58fragment. My younger sister Ingrid couldn't stand alone as a sentence. That's a sentence fragment. It doesn't
00:19:05express a complete thought. Once worked as a costume designer would also be a sentence fragment. Those
00:19:12words also don't express a complete thought by themselves. But when you combine the subject and
00:19:18the predicate, a complete thought is expressed. Now, is there one most important word in the predicate
00:19:24that tells exactly what Ingrid does, or in this case did, because it's talking about something from the past?
00:19:32Yes, there is one word that is most important in the predicate. It's the word worked. Worked is the verb
00:19:41in
00:19:41this sentence, and it's the most important word. It tells us exactly what Ingrid did. She worked. Notice that all
00:19:49the other words in the predicate give us more information about what Ingrid did. The word once,
00:19:55for example, tells us when she did it, at one time in the past. And the words, as a costume
00:20:02designer,
00:20:03give us more information about exactly how she worked, what kind of job she worked at. So all the
00:20:10other words in the predicate are there to give us more information about what Ingrid did. But the word
00:20:16worked is the most important word. It's the verb. So the heart of this sentence is the subject and the
00:20:24predicate, and in particular, the one word, simple subject, and the verb. Ingrid worked. And all the
00:20:31other words in the subject and the predicate are there to give us more information about how and when
00:20:37what Ingrid worked worked. Let's take a look at another example. She enjoys creating things with
00:20:45her hands. Can you identify the subject in this sentence? In this case, the subject is only one
00:20:52word long, she. That word all by itself tells us who or what the sentence is about. All the rest
00:21:01of the
00:21:01sentence is the predicate. It tells us what the subject is or does. The rest of the sentence enjoys creating
00:21:10things with her hands, tells us something about what the subject does. The subject, she, one word long, and
00:21:18therefore the subject and the simple subject are exactly the same. Focusing on the predicate for a moment, is there
00:21:25one word there that's most important, the verb, which tells us exactly what the subject does. Yes,
00:21:32the verb, the most important word in the predicate is enjoys. That tells us exactly what the subject,
00:21:39she, does. She enjoys. And the other words in the predicate tell us more information about what she
00:21:46enjoys. She enjoys creating things. And how does she create them? With her hands. So all the other words in
00:21:53the predicate give us more information about exactly what the subject does. But enjoys is the most
00:21:59important word in the predicate. It's the verb. Again, the heart of this sentence is she enjoys. And the
00:22:06other words, the remaining words in the predicate, are there to give more information. In this particular
00:22:12sentence, then, we have a very short subject. And the rest of the sentence, the predicate tells us what the
00:22:17subject does. Now, occasionally, this kind of simple sentence structure gets a little more complicated
00:22:24with the addition of a compound subject. What is a compound subject? A compound subject is two or more
00:22:33things that work together as the subject. Usually, these two or more things are joined together by the
00:22:41word and or the word or. Look at this example. Dogs and cats sometimes enjoy living together. What's the
00:22:50subject of this sentence? Well, the subject of this sentence is the first three words, dogs and cats.
00:22:56That's what the sentence is about. All the rest is the predicate. It tells what dogs and cats do. Now,
00:23:04what's the simple subject of this sentence? Is it dogs? Is it cats? Well, really, it's both.
00:23:11The sentence isn't only about dogs, and it's not only about cats. It's about both. And since we have
00:23:17two subjects that are joined by the word and, we would consider this a compound subject. So,
00:23:23the entire subject is both words and the word and between them. Dogs and cats all together go to make
00:23:30up the subject as well as the simple subject. In this case, a compound subject exists in this sentence.
00:23:39Looking for a moment at the predicate of this sentence, sometimes enjoy living together. Is there one
00:23:45most important word that expresses exactly what the dogs and cats do? The word is enjoy. That's the verb in
00:23:54this sentence, the most important word in the predicate, and it tells us what the dogs and cats do. They
00:23:59enjoy.
00:24:00And the other words in the predicate tell us more about exactly what they enjoy. They enjoy living
00:24:06together. And when they do it? Sometimes. Just as a subject can be compound, a verb can also be compound.
00:24:16When a subject is compound, it means that there are two or more things that are acting together in the
00:24:22sentence. Can you guess what a compound verb would be? Well, that's when you have a subject which is
00:24:28doing two or more things. A compound verb is two or more verbs that describe what the subject does.
00:24:35Again, joined by the word and or or. Here's an example. The giant tree bent and swayed in the wind.
00:24:45What's the subject in this sentence? The answer is the giant tree. That's what the sentence is about.
00:24:53Is there a one word simple subject? Yes, it's the word tree. The other words, the giant, are there to
00:25:01tell
00:25:01you more about the tree, to describe it a little bit. Now, the rest of the sentence is the predicate,
00:25:07bent and swayed in the wind. Now, is there a most important word in the predicate? A word that tells
00:25:14you exactly what the tree did? Well, the fact is, there are two words that tell you two things that
00:25:19the tree did. It bent, but it also swayed. So those two words, bent and swayed, are both equally
00:25:27important. They're both verbs. They both describe actions that the tree took. And they're connected
00:25:34by the word and. So in this sentence, we have a compound verb. That is, two verbs joined by the
00:25:41word
00:25:41and, both of which describe what the subject is doing. So the heart of this sentence is tree bent and
00:25:48swayed. And the other words in the sentence are there to give us more information about what kind
00:25:54of tree it was and how and when the tree bent and swayed. So as we see in some sentences,
00:26:02you may have
00:26:03a compound subject, that is, two or more subjects joined by the word and or, and in some sentences,
00:26:12you may have a compound verb, that is, two or more verbs joined by the word and or, or. You
00:26:20may even have,
00:26:21in certain sentences, both a compound subject and a compound verb. But most often, one or the other
00:26:28will be compound and not both. We've seen then that every sentence can be broken down into two main parts,
00:26:36the subject and the predicate. The subject expresses who or what the sentence is about. And one word from
00:26:44the subject, the simple subject, is the most important word in the subject. The rest of the sentence is the
00:26:51predicate. It tells what the subject is or does. And the most important word in the predicate is the verb.
00:26:59In your study guide, we have an exercise that will give you a chance to practice your understanding of
00:27:05these concepts. In this exercise, your job was to look at each sentence and decide which group of
00:27:20words was the subject and which group of words was the predicate. Then within the subject, you were to
00:27:26identify the most important word, which is the simple subject, and within the predicate, to identify the
00:27:33most important word, which would be the verb. Let's take a look at each of the sentences and see how
00:27:39well
00:27:39you did. First, 53 officers received medals at the police department awards ceremony. What's the subject
00:27:49of this sentence? Who or what is the sentence about? It's the first two words, 53 officers. That is who
00:27:57this
00:27:57sentence is about. And the simple subject, the most important word here is officers. The other word, 53,
00:28:06gives us more information about the officers. Specifically, it tells us how many officers there
00:28:11were. So 53 officers is the subject and officers is the simple subject. That means the rest of the sentence
00:28:20would be the predicate. Were you able to identify the single most important word, namely the verb. That's
00:28:27the word that expresses the action that the officers did. The answer to that is received. Received is the
00:28:35verb in this sentence. It tells us what the officers did. They received something. All the rest of the
00:28:42predicate gives us more information about what the officers did. What did they receive? Medals. Where did they
00:28:49receive them? At the police department awards ceremony. So all those other words in the predicate
00:28:54are there to give us more information about the action they did, namely the receiving. Let's take a
00:29:01look at the second sentence. Bored with the grown-up conversation, little Amy fell asleep under the
00:29:07kitchen table. Where would you divide this sentence between the subject and the predicate? In this case,
00:29:14the subject includes all the words up to little Amy. So the subject would include bored with the grown-up
00:29:21conversation, little Amy. All of that is the subject. All of that describes what the sentence is about, or
00:29:27in this case, who the sentence is about. What's the single most important word here? Did you identify
00:29:34one word as the simple subject? The answer is Amy. Amy is the simple subject. That's basically what the sentence
00:29:42is
00:29:42about. All the other words here give us more information about Amy. The other words tell us
00:29:48that Amy is little and that she was bored with the grown-up conversation. So all those other words give
00:29:54more information about the simple subject Amy. The rest of the sentence is the predicate. Fell asleep under
00:30:01the kitchen table. Which word is the verb, the most important word in the predicate? The answer is
00:30:08fell. What did Amy do? She fell. The rest of the words in the predicate give us more information,
00:30:16specifically that she didn't fall off a ledge or off a sofa. She fell asleep. And where did she fall
00:30:22asleep?
00:30:23Under the kitchen table. So the subject is bored with the grown-up conversation, little Amy. And the predicate is
00:30:30fell asleep under the kitchen table. And fell is the most important word in the predicate, the verb.
00:30:38How about the next example? The number of businesses in this county has increased every year for the past
00:30:45decade. The subject of this sentence is the number of businesses in this county. All of those words go to
00:30:53explain what the sentence is about. Now, picking the simple subject in this sentence isn't so easy. It's a
00:31:02little bit tricky in this case. Is the sentence about businesses or this county? No, it's really
00:31:11about number. The word number is actually the simple subject of this sentence. One way to tell for sure is
00:31:19that that word, that simple subject, is the word that is most directly connected to the predicate.
00:31:25Let's look at the predicate. The predicate is the rest of the sentence, which says,
00:31:30has increased every year for the past decade. Now, remember, the predicate tells us what the subject of
00:31:37the sentence does. Now, looking at this sentence, what has increased every year for the past decade?
00:31:44In other words, what does the predicate refer to? What is it that has increased every year for the past
00:31:50decade? Is it the county that has increased? No, the county hasn't increased. Is it businesses has
00:31:58increased? No, not really. What has increased is the number of businesses. In other words, the number
00:32:06was smaller at one time. Now the number is larger. Perhaps the number of businesses was 50. Now it's 100.
00:32:14The point is that the number has increased or gotten larger. So the simple subject here is the word
00:32:21number. It may be difficult to recognize because it's not at the end of the complete subject. It's
00:32:29somewhere buried in the middle. And it's easy to overlook that. But the most important word in this
00:32:34particular subject is the word number. And you can tell that because that's the word that's most directly
00:32:40connected to the predicate. Looking at the predicate, what's the most important word there,
00:32:46or the verb? Once again, this example is a little more tricky than some of the other examples we've
00:32:53seen. In this case, the verb consists of two words. Sometimes verbs in English do consist of two or even
00:33:01more words. In this case, the verb includes both the word has and the word increased. You need both of
00:33:09those
00:33:09words to make the complete verb to explain what the number of businesses in this county has done.
00:33:16The number has increased. You need both of those words to make up the verb. Notice that this is not
00:33:22a compound verb because these are not two separate verbs, two separate actions joined by the word and
00:33:29or or. Instead, these are simply two words that fit together to make a single verb describing a single
00:33:36action, has increased. It simply happens to be a verb that is made up of two words rather than just
00:33:43one.
00:33:43So in this case, the verb is has increased. And those two words together make up the verb, which is
00:33:50the most
00:33:51important word in our predicate. Next example. According to scientists, birds and dinosaurs are
00:33:59biologically related. Where would we divide the subject and the predicate in this case? In this sentence,
00:34:07the subject is everything up through the word dinosaurs. So the subject is according to scientists,
00:34:13birds and dinosaurs. The rest of the sentence is the predicate. It tells us what the subject is or does.
00:34:21are biologically related. Now let's go back to the subject. What's the simple subject here? Do you
00:34:27notice anything unusual about it? In this case, we have a compound subject because there are two subjects,
00:34:34both equally important, connected by the word and. Birds and dinosaurs. So those two words together,
00:34:41with the word and connecting them, make up the simple subject in this particular sentence.
00:34:48In this case, looking at the predicate, what's the most important word, the verb, in this predicate?
00:34:53The verb is are. What the sentence is about is something that birds and dinosaurs are. And all the
00:35:01remaining words in the sentence give more information about that. They tell us where this information
00:35:07comes from, namely scientists, and they tell us what the birds and dinosaurs are. They are biologically related.
00:35:15Our last example, all day and all night unceasingly fell the rain.
00:35:21This sentence may sound a little bit unusual to you. And it's written in a slightly unusual English style.
00:35:28It almost sounds a little bit poetic. And we put it in for a specific reason.
00:35:32Where would you find the subject in this particular sentence? Well, this sentence is different from
00:35:38all the other sentences we've looked at so far, because the subject is at the end of the sentence. In
00:35:44most English sentences, the subject comes at the beginning. But once in a while, you'll encounter an English
00:35:51sentence where the subject comes at the end. And often it has a slightly unusual sound, as this sentence does.
00:35:59In this case, when we ask who or what is the sentence about, we say it's about the rain. So
00:36:05those last two
00:36:05words of the sentence, the rain, are the subject. And the simple subject is the one word, rain. The rest
00:36:13of
00:36:13the sentence is the predicate. It tells what the rain did. And what did the rain do? All day and
00:36:20all night
00:36:20unceasingly fell. What's the single most important word in the predicate? The verb, which tells us exactly what
00:36:28the rain did. The verb is fell. So the heart of this sentence is rain fell. And all the other
00:36:35words
00:36:35give us a little more information about that. Obviously, we threw this sentence into the mix
00:36:40to illustrate for you that the subject isn't always at the beginning of the sentence. But in most English
00:36:47sentences, it is. So when you're looking for the subject of a sentence, start by looking at the beginning.
00:36:52The chances are good that that's where it is. But if you don't find it there, stop and think,
00:36:58perhaps this is one of those unusual sentences where the subject appears at the end. And this is an
00:37:03example of that. So far in this program, we've been talking about sentences. Now I'm about to introduce
00:37:15a new word for a reason which will soon become apparent. This new word is clause. And here's the
00:37:22definition. A clause is a group of words that includes both a subject and a verb.
00:37:30Now you may be thinking, gee, that sounds an awful lot like a sentence. Because after all,
00:37:36all the sentences we've looked at up to this point do contain both subjects and verbs. So how is a
00:37:44clause
00:37:44different from a sentence? Well, that will become obvious in a moment. Let me explain that there are
00:37:50two kinds of clauses. One of them is the same as a sentence and the other is not. But it's
00:37:56important to
00:37:57understand both kinds of clauses because larger and more complicated sentence structures may involve
00:38:04both kinds of clauses. Here's how it works. The first kind of clause is an independent clause. An
00:38:12independent clause is one that can stand alone as a sentence. Why? Because it expresses a complete
00:38:19thought. You know the word independent means able to stand on one's own. When the United States became
00:38:27independent from the country that founded it, England, the United States was able to stand on its own. And an
00:38:34independent clause can stand on its own as a sentence. Take a look at this example. Europa is one of
00:38:43the
00:38:43moons of Jupiter. Now this is a clause because it's a group of words that contains both a subject and
00:38:50a verb.
00:38:51Can you identify the subject and the verb in this sentence? The subject is Europa. Europa is what the
00:38:58sentence is about. The verb is is. That is what Europa is or does in this sentence. It is something.
00:39:07And the
00:39:07rest of the words tell us what Europa is. One of the moons of Jupiter. So this is a clause
00:39:14because it
00:39:14contains both a subject and a verb. It's also a sentence because this happens to be an independent
00:39:21clause. A clause that is able to stand alone as a sentence because it expresses a complete thought.
00:39:28Well, if an independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, what do you call a clause that cannot stand
00:39:35alone as a sentence? The answer is a subordinate clause. The word subordinate means following or less
00:39:44important than. And this describes what these clauses are like. A subordinate clause can't stand alone as a
00:39:52sentence because it doesn't express a complete thought. Usually subordinate clauses begin with particular types of
00:40:01words which are known as subordinating conjunctions. A conjunction is a word that connects two groups of
00:40:08words. And the word subordinating means making something less important. So a subordinating conjunction
00:40:16is a word that connects the subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence and makes the subordinate clause
00:40:23less important. Because the subordinate conjunction is present, the subordinate clause can't stand alone as
00:40:31a sentence. Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions. If, after, because, since, although, when,
00:40:44until. Normally a clause that begins with one of these words, one of these subordinating conjunctions,
00:40:51means can't stand alone as a sentence because it won't express a complete thought. Therefore we consider
00:40:57it a subordinate clause. Take a look at this example. Because Europa has oceans filled with water like the
00:41:06earth. Now this is a clause because it does contain a subject and a verb. The subject is Europa. The
00:41:14verb is
00:41:14has. So far so good. But can this stand alone as a sentence? No. I think if you listen to
00:41:22this group
00:41:23of words, you can see that the clause doesn't express a complete thought. It says, because Europa has oceans
00:41:30filled with water like the earth. This leaves you wondering what the speaker is getting at. Because Europa
00:41:37has oceans filled with water. Therefore what? We're waiting for some conclusion. It sounds as though the sentence is
00:41:45leading to some conclusion, but none is presented. And therefore this isn't a complete sentence. Rather, it's a subordinate
00:41:53clause, one that cannot stand alone as a sentence. And if this were to appear in a piece of writing
00:41:58as if it were a complete
00:42:00sentence, that would be a mistake. This is really a sentence fragment. This is a subordinate clause because it
00:42:07begins with the subordinating conjunction because. Notice that having the subordinating conjunction because
00:42:15there makes this into a subordinate clause. If you were to take away that subordinating conjunction,
00:42:22the sentence would become an independent clause. It could stand alone as a sentence. The sentence would then say,
00:42:29say, Europa has oceans filled with water like the earth. Now that sounds like a complete thought. But when you
00:42:37put the
00:42:37subordinating conjunction because in front of it, it makes the clause less important. It makes it feel as though it
00:42:45needs to be
00:42:46attached to something else in order to express a complete thought. So this is the second type of clause. An
00:42:53independent clause can
00:42:54stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause cannot. And a subordinate clause usually begins with a
00:43:01subordinating conjunction. Now, why is it important to know about subordinate clauses? Because subordinate
00:43:08clauses are an important building block in many sentences. In fact, there are four different kinds of
00:43:15sentence structures that you need to know about. And subordinate clauses are important in some of them. The four
00:43:21types of sentence structures that you need to understand are the simple sentence, the compound sentence, the complex
00:43:29sentence, and the compound complex sentence. Let's take a look at each. First, a simple sentence. A simple sentence
00:43:39consists of one independent clause. Remember, an independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. And when it does, the
00:43:48result is what we call a
00:43:50simple sentence. For example, life may exist on Europa. This simple sentence contains the subject, life. The verb, which has
00:44:03two words, may exist. And taken together, it is one clause,
00:44:09one independent clause, one independent clause, and therefore a simple sentence. By contrast, a compound sentence contains two or more
00:44:20independent clauses, which are joined either by a comma and a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. That's a complicated definition.
00:44:31So let's take it piece by piece. A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses.
00:44:38As we've seen, an independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. But two of them can also be joined
00:44:45together to form a compound sentence.
00:44:48Now, when you have two independent clauses, and you want to join them together, you have to do it according
00:44:54to certain rules. And there are basically two alternatives, two ways of making that connection.
00:45:00One way of making the connection is by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction. There are a few different
00:45:09words that are called coordinating conjunctions. The most important and common ones are and, or, and but.
00:45:17So one way of joining two independent clauses to create a compound sentence is by using a comma and the
00:45:26word and, or, or but. Another way of connecting two independent clauses to make a compound sentence is by using
00:45:34a semicolon in between them.
00:45:36Let's take a look at an example of a compound sentence.
00:45:40Many astronomers believe in extraterrestrial life, but others disagree.
00:45:47Here we have two independent clauses which have been joined together to form a single compound sentence.
00:45:54The first independent clause is, many astronomers believe in extraterrestrial life.
00:46:01The word extraterrestrial means life outside of this planet, outside of the Earth.
00:46:07That could stand alone as a sentence. It's an independent clause.
00:46:11It contains the subject, astronomers, and the verb, believe. And it could stand alone as a sentence.
00:46:18Then we have the clause, but others disagree. That could also stand alone as a sentence.
00:46:25It contains the subject, others, the verb, disagree. And the word, but, tells you that there's a contrast to the
00:46:35preceding idea.
00:46:36Nonetheless, it could stand alone as a sentence. It's perfectly alright to begin a sentence with a word like but
00:46:43or and.
00:46:43In any case, this is another independent clause. So this could have been set up as two separate sentences.
00:46:51But because the ideas are closely connected, the writer wanted to link them.
00:46:55How did he do it? By using a comma and the coordinating conjunction but.
00:47:01Putting that comma and the word but in there makes it easy to connect the two clauses to form one
00:47:08sentence.
00:47:09Namely, a compound sentence, because it's made up of two independent clauses.
00:47:13Now remember we said there's another way of creating a compound sentence.
00:47:17And that is to use a semicolon in place of the comma and the coordinating conjunction.
00:47:25So this sentence would also be correct if it read as follows.
00:47:29Many astronomers believe in extraterrestrial life.
00:47:32Semicolon. Others disagree.
00:47:35This would also be a correct way of creating this compound sentence.
00:47:41The point. A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses.
00:47:45And there are two alternative ways of joining them to make a single sentence.
00:47:50So that's our second type of sentence.
00:47:53Simple sentence and a compound sentence.
00:47:55Now for the third type.
00:47:56A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
00:48:05Now remember the subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.
00:48:10However, it works perfectly well when it is attached to an independent clause.
00:48:15It normally has a secondary or less important meaning.
00:48:19And it needs the independent clause in order to express a complete thought.
00:48:24Let's take a look at an example of how this works.
00:48:28Here's a sentence.
00:48:29If extraterrestrial life is ever discovered, it will change human history.
00:48:35Now here we have two clauses.
00:48:37The first clause says, if extraterrestrial life is ever discovered.
00:48:42The subject of this clause is life.
00:48:45The verb is, is discovered.
00:48:49It's a two word verb.
00:48:50And in this case, the word ever happens to come in between the two parts of the verb.
00:48:56That happens sometimes.
00:48:57So the subject and the verb is, life is discovered.
00:49:01And the whole clause reads, if extraterrestrial life is ever discovered.
00:49:06Now let's pause.
00:49:08Is that an independent clause or a subordinate clause?
00:49:11Could it stand alone as a sentence?
00:49:13Well, think about how it sounds.
00:49:15If extraterrestrial life is ever discovered.
00:49:19Doesn't it leave you hanging?
00:49:21It leaves you wondering what the author is building toward.
00:49:25It sounds as though some conclusion is necessary.
00:49:28Therefore, we don't have a complete thought.
00:49:30We do have a subordinate clause.
00:49:33This is a clause that can't stand alone as a sentence.
00:49:36Let's take a look at the other clause and see what that is like.
00:49:40The other clause reads, it will change human history.
00:49:44This is a clause because it contains a subject and a verb.
00:49:47The subject is it, and will change is the verb.
00:49:52It will change human history.
00:49:54Now, could this clause stand alone as a sentence?
00:49:56Yes, it could.
00:49:58It expresses a complete thought.
00:49:59It will change human history.
00:50:01That could be a sentence by itself.
00:50:04So this is an independent clause.
00:50:06In this case, therefore, we have a subordinate clause first, followed by an independent clause.
00:50:12The two things work together to create a single, complete thought.
00:50:17If extraterrestrial life is ever discovered, it will change human history.
00:50:23The first clause sets up a possibility, and the second clause explains what would happen if that possibility comes true.
00:50:31So the two clauses work together to express one complete idea.
00:50:35And therefore, we have a correct sentence, which is known as a complex sentence.
00:50:41Because that's what a complex sentence does.
00:50:44It combines two different kinds of clauses.
00:50:47One, an independent clause, and the other, a subordinate clause.
00:50:51Makes them into a whole to express a single thought.
00:50:54Notice that it doesn't matter what order the clauses are in.
00:50:59The subordinate clause could come first, or the independent clause could come first.
00:51:04In this particular sentence, the subordinate clause comes first, but it could have been the other way around.
00:51:10Either way, it's considered a complex sentence.
00:51:13The fourth and most difficult kind of sentence is known as the compound complex sentence.
00:51:21The compound complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses, and one or more subordinate clauses.
00:51:30So it's like a combination of the compound sentence with the complex sentence.
00:51:35As you can see, the compound complex sentence must have at least three clauses.
00:51:41And some writers in English, William Faulkner is a famous novelist who is a good example of this.
00:51:49Some writers in English write sentences that go on for many, many words, and in some cases, even a page
00:51:56or more.
00:51:57And some of the sentences in William Faulkner contain ten or twelve or more separate clauses.
00:52:03Those are very complicated sentences, and their grammar is very difficult to untangle.
00:52:09But a compound complex sentence must contain at least three clauses.
00:52:14Let's take a look at an example, and we'll see how this works.
00:52:18Although no sign of life on other worlds has yet been found, the search continues, and many predict success.
00:52:26In this sentence, we have three groups of words, and each of these three is a clause, because each contains
00:52:33a subject and a verb.
00:52:34Let's take a look at each one.
00:52:36The first group of words says, although no sign of life on other worlds has yet been found.
00:52:42This is a clause, because it contains a subject and a verb.
00:52:46The verb actually happens to be three words long.
00:52:49Has been found is the complete verb.
00:52:53You need all three words to make up the verb in this case.
00:52:57The word yet, which is stuck in in the middle, happens to be an adverb, and adverbs do sometimes interrupt
00:53:03verbs in this way.
00:53:05But that isn't an important detail for right now.
00:53:08The verb is, has been found, and the subject is sign.
00:53:13Sign, has been found, is the heart of this clause.
00:53:16Now, looking at the clause as a whole, is it an independent clause or a subordinate clause?
00:53:23Could it stand alone as a sentence?
00:53:25Well, the answer is no, it couldn't.
00:53:27Read it again.
00:53:28Although no sign of life on other worlds has yet been found.
00:53:32Perhaps you can hear that something is missing.
00:53:34The author seems to be building up to some conclusion, but no conclusion is presented.
00:53:40We can't tell what is supposed to happen as a result of the fact that no sign of life on
00:53:46other worlds has yet been found.
00:53:47We feel as though we're left hanging.
00:53:50Therefore, this clause doesn't express a complete thought.
00:53:53So it's a subordinate clause.
00:53:56The telltale sign, of course, is that it begins with a subordinating conjunction.
00:54:00Although.
00:54:02Almost always, a clause that begins with the word, although, will be a subordinate clause,
00:54:07and unable to stand alone as a sentence.
00:54:10What about the second clause?
00:54:12The next group of words in the sentence reads, the search continues.
00:54:17Here again, we have a subject and a verb.
00:54:19The verb is continues, and the subject is search.
00:54:22Could this stand alone as a sentence?
00:54:25Yes, it could.
00:54:26It expresses a complete thought, it sounds complete, and although it only consists of three words,
00:54:33nonetheless, it would make up a complete sentence by itself and could stand alone.
00:54:37The search continues.
00:54:39So here we have an independent clause.
00:54:42What about the last group of words in the sentence?
00:54:45And many predict success.
00:54:48Once again, this is a clause because it has a subject and a verb.
00:54:52The verb is predict, and the subject is many.
00:54:56Could this stand alone as a sentence?
00:54:58And many predict success.
00:55:00Yes, it could.
00:55:02This expresses a complete thought, and it could stand alone as a sentence.
00:55:06So now, let's step back and look at what we have.
00:55:09We have a sentence consisting of three clauses.
00:55:12The first one is a subordinate clause.
00:55:14The second one is an independent clause.
00:55:17And the third one is another independent clause.
00:55:19That's what makes this a compound complex sentence.
00:55:24Notice that the sentence is not terribly long or terribly complicated to understand.
00:55:30You probably didn't find it very difficult to understand what was being said in the sentence.
00:55:35Nonetheless, this is about as complicated from a grammatical standpoint as a sentence can get.
00:55:41Of the four types of sentences, the compound complex sentence is the most complicated type.
00:55:48So if you understand how this sentence is put together, you have a pretty good chance of understanding how any
00:55:55and all sentences are put together.
00:55:57The only difference when you get to a sentence written by someone like William Faulkner is that more and more
00:56:02clauses are piled on.
00:56:04But it just continues to be more of the same kind of thing.
00:56:08More of a compound complex sentence with more and more independent and subordinate clauses added on.
00:56:16Notice that as we've discussed these four types of sentences, the simple sentence, the compound sentence, the complex sentence, and
00:56:25the compound complex sentence,
00:56:27we've seen certain rules that apply to your own writing and to any academic work that you do related to
00:56:35English or grammar.
00:56:36We've seen that it's a mistake to let a subordinate clause stand alone as a sentence.
00:56:43When you do that, you create a sentence fragment, which is considered a grammatical error.
00:56:48Here's another type of grammatical error to watch out for.
00:56:52It's called the run-on sentence.
00:56:55Now, what is a run-on sentence?
00:56:57Many people think, from the name of this error, that a run-on sentence is a sentence that is simply
00:57:04too long.
00:57:05Perhaps they figure that a sentence that's more than 50 words, let's say, is a run-on sentence.
00:57:12Well, a run-on sentence really has nothing to do with the length.
00:57:16There's a very simple definition of a run-on sentence, which should make it easy for you to avoid it
00:57:21in your own writing.
00:57:22A run-on sentence includes two or more independent clauses that are joined only by a comma or by nothing
00:57:31at all.
00:57:31Now, let's stop and remember how we defined a compound sentence.
00:57:37Remember, a compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses.
00:57:41But when we discussed the compound sentence, we saw that there were two appropriate ways of connecting the two independent
00:57:48clauses.
00:57:49One way would be to use a comma and a coordinating conjunction, such as and, or, or but.
00:57:56The other correct way would be to use a semicolon.
00:57:59A run-on sentence comes about when two independent clauses are taken and simply jammed together, with no punctuation between
00:58:09them or perhaps just a comma.
00:58:11Doing that makes an incorrect sentence.
00:58:15It's a run-on.
00:58:16The connection between the two independent clauses is not clear, and it's considered a grammatical error.
00:58:22So, if you have a teacher who says, you've made a mistake in your paper by writing a run-on
00:58:28sentence, this is what the teacher means.
00:58:30And you can see that the way to correct it is by following the proper rules for creating a compound
00:58:36sentence.
00:58:36Here's an example of a run-on sentence.
00:58:40Visit the City Science Museum, you'll see some fascinating exhibits about outer space.
00:58:46Here we have two clauses.
00:58:47Visit the City Science Museum.
00:58:49That's an independent clause, and it could stand alone as a sentence.
00:58:53Then we have another clause.
00:58:55You'll see some fascinating exhibits about outer space.
00:58:59What's the subject and the verb in each of these clauses, by the way?
00:59:03The first clause may be a little bit tricky.
00:59:07It has a verb, visit, but the subject doesn't appear.
00:59:11This is an imperative clause, namely one that is giving you an order or a recommendation or a suggestion.
00:59:20And the subject doesn't appear normally in an imperative sentence.
00:59:24The subject is understood to be you.
00:59:27What this clause is saying is you visit the City Science Museum.
00:59:31So, an imperative sentence is an exception to our rule that a subject and a verb must always appear.
00:59:38In an imperative sentence, the subject may be understood.
00:59:41In our second clause, the subject is you, and the verb is we'll see.
00:59:49In this case, it takes the form of the contraction, apostrophe ll, instead of spelling out the word will at
00:59:56full length.
00:59:57But the words you'll see really mean the same as you will see.
01:00:02So, in the second clause here, the verb is we'll see, and the subject is you.
01:00:07So, we have two clauses here, either one of which could stand alone as a sentence.
01:00:11Look at that second clause.
01:00:13You'll see some fascinating exhibits about outer space.
01:00:16That could stand alone as a sentence.
01:00:19We have two independent clauses which have simply been stuck together with a comma in between.
01:00:24That's what makes this wrong.
01:00:25It's a run-on sentence.
01:00:27If you had written this in your own paper, you would have to correct it to make the paper grammatically
01:00:32acceptable.
01:00:33What would be a good way to fix this run-on sentence?
01:00:37Well, you have at least two options.
01:00:39Remember our rules about how to create a compound sentence.
01:00:43One way to correct this would be to use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
01:00:48And in this case, the coordinating conjunction and seems like the natural choice.
01:00:53So, the sentence would be correct if it read, visit the City Science Museum, comma,
01:00:59and you'll see some fascinating exhibits about outer space.
01:01:03Another way to correct the run-on sentence would be to substitute a semicolon for the comma.
01:01:11Then the sentence would read, visit the City Science Museum, semicolon,
01:01:15you'll see some fascinating exhibits about outer space.
01:01:19That would also be correct.
01:01:21There's another program in this series that deals with punctuation.
01:01:25And we'll talk in more detail about the semicolon in that program.
01:01:30But for now, here's an important tip to remember.
01:01:33The purpose of the semicolon, basically, is to connect independent clauses.
01:01:38So, whenever you use a semicolon in your writing, what appears on either side of the semicolon should be an
01:01:45independent clause,
01:01:47able to stand alone as a sentence.
01:01:48And if you put a semicolon in the middle of this longer sentence, you would create a correct compound sentence.
01:01:55The problem with it, as it now reads, is that it's a run-on, because the two independent clauses have
01:02:02simply been stuck together with a comma, which does not work.
01:02:06Of course, there's really a third possible solution, which would be to make the two independent clauses into two separate
01:02:12sentences.
01:02:13Put a period in between, and put a capital letter at the beginning of the second sentence, and you'd be
01:02:19fine.
01:02:20So, a run-on sentence can easily be corrected, but you must remember the rules for properly creating a compound
01:02:26sentence.
01:02:28To reinforce the skills and the topics we've just been discussing, we have one more exercise in your study guide.
01:02:42In this exercise, you were asked to read several sentences, and for each one to decide whether it was a
01:02:49simple sentence, a compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound complex sentence.
01:02:55In addition, we threw in one run-on sentence for you to notice.
01:02:59Remember that a run-on sentence is an error, something you would need to correct if you wrote one in
01:03:06your own writing.
01:03:08Let's take a look at the first sentence in the exercise.
01:03:11Jazz is the greatest American musical form, and Duke Ellington is its greatest genius.
01:03:17Here we have two clauses, and both are independent clauses.
01:03:21Either of these could stand alone as a sentence.
01:03:25Jazz is the greatest American musical form.
01:03:28That could stand alone as a sentence.
01:03:30Duke Ellington is its greatest genius.
01:03:32That, too, could stand alone as an independent sentence.
01:03:36Therefore, we have two independent clauses, which have been properly and correctly combined by using a comma and the word
01:03:44and.
01:03:44Therefore, we have a compound sentence in this case.
01:03:49Let's look at our second example.
01:03:51Although young women want to participate in sports as much as young men, women's sports often don't receive equal funding
01:03:59from colleges.
01:04:00Here we have a slightly longer sentence, but it's still fundamentally not too complicated.
01:04:06It really consists of just two clauses.
01:04:09Let's break it down into parts and analyze each one.
01:04:12The first clause is everything before the comma, and it reads,
01:04:16Although young women want to participate in sports as much as young men.
01:04:21What's the verb in this particular clause?
01:04:24What word expresses action or being on the part of the subject?
01:04:28The verb is want, and the subject is women.
01:04:33Young women is the broader subject, but the simple subject is women.
01:04:37So the subject and verb in this clause is women want, and everything else in the clause is there to
01:04:45provide more information about what kind of women we're talking about and what specifically they want.
01:04:51Now, looking at that clause as a whole, could it stand alone as a sentence?
01:04:55The answer is no.
01:04:57It's a subordinate clause.
01:04:59It couldn't stand alone as a sentence, and again, there's a telltale sign.
01:05:03It begins with the subordinating conjunction, although.
01:05:07When you read this clause, you can see that something more is needed to make a complete thought.
01:05:13Although young women want to participate in sports as much as young men, therefore what?
01:05:19We don't know, and so by itself, this would not work as a complete sentence.
01:05:24Notice that although there are a lot of words there, it would still make a sentence fragment.
01:05:29So the word fragment doesn't necessarily mean a short or small number of words.
01:05:36It simply means that the words do not express a complete thought and therefore cannot stand alone as a sentence.
01:05:43So we have here a subordinate clause in the first part of this sentence.
01:05:47What about the second part of the sentence?
01:05:50Women's sports often don't receive equal funding from colleges.
01:05:54Here we have an independent clause.
01:05:56This could stand alone as a complete sentence.
01:06:01Don't receive is the verb, and sports, or women's sports more broadly, is the subject.
01:06:08This could stand alone as a sentence, so it's an independent clause.
01:06:12So we have here a subordinate clause linked to an independent clause.
01:06:17The two ideas together make one complete thought, and therefore we have a complex sentence.
01:06:24Our third example reads,
01:06:26The tallest mountain in Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, is the subject of a stunning new IMAX documentary film.
01:06:34Now, the first group of words in this sentence doesn't happen to be a clause.
01:06:40The sentence begins,
01:06:42The tallest mountain in Africa.
01:06:44Remember that a clause has to contain both a subject and a verb.
01:06:47Is there a verb here?
01:06:48A word expressing action or being?
01:06:52Not really.
01:06:52We simply have what could be a subject, the tallest mountain in Africa, but there's no verb there.
01:06:59So this is not a clause.
01:07:01It's a modifying phrase.
01:07:03Again, a term that's not important for this conversation.
01:07:06But it's simply giving more information about what appears in the real clause which is about to begin.
01:07:12Mount Kilimanjaro is the subject of a stunning new IMAX documentary film.
01:07:17Here is where the verb appears.
01:07:19Is is the verb, and the simple subject is Mount Kilimanjaro.
01:07:24So, in this case, this sentence consists of simply one clause, one independent clause,
01:07:30which is able to stand alone as a sentence.
01:07:32So this is a simple sentence.
01:07:34Again, notice the term simple sentence doesn't necessarily mean that the sentence is very short.
01:07:41There are quite a few words here, but because there's only one clause, it's a simple sentence.
01:07:47Our next example.
01:07:49The author Mark Twain was fascinated by technology.
01:07:52He was the first writer ever to deliver a typed manuscript to his publisher.
01:07:57Here we have two separate clauses, and both of them happen to be independent clauses.
01:08:04Either one could stand alone as a sentence.
01:08:07You can probably tell just by reading them.
01:08:09The author Mark Twain was fascinated by technology.
01:08:12We have a subject and a verb, and this could stand alone as a complete thought.
01:08:17He was the first writer ever to deliver a typed manuscript to his publisher.
01:08:22Here again, we have a subject and a verb, and it could stand alone as a complete thought.
01:08:27We have two independent clauses then.
01:08:30Does that mean we have a compound sentence?
01:08:32No, because the rules for how you create a compound sentence have not been followed.
01:08:38The two independent clauses have simply been stuck together with a comma.
01:08:42So what do we have?
01:08:43We have a run-on sentence, and this is an error.
01:08:46It would have to be corrected either by adding a coordinating conjunction, such as and, or, or, but,
01:08:55or by substituting a semicolon for the comma in the middle of the sentence.
01:09:01In this case, using a semicolon would probably make the most sense,
01:09:06since and, or, or, but do not work particularly well as connecting words in this sentence.
01:09:13Instead, using a semicolon to turn this into a proper compound sentence
01:09:18would be a good way of correcting the run-on sentence.
01:09:21It would then read,
01:09:22The author Mark Twain was fascinated by technology, semicolon.
01:09:26He was the first writer ever to deliver a typed manuscript to his publisher.
01:09:30And that would be correct.
01:09:32Our last sentence reads,
01:09:34When I visited California last summer, I spent one week in San Francisco,
01:09:39and I visited the nearby Napa Valley with my cousin.
01:09:42Here we have three clauses.
01:09:44The first one,
01:09:46When I visited California last summer, is a subordinate clause.
01:09:51Perhaps you can tell that it can't stand alone as a sentence.
01:09:54It leaves us wondering what happened when I visited California last summer.
01:09:59It sounds incomplete, and it is.
01:10:02It is a subordinate clause and can't stand alone as a sentence.
01:10:06The next clause reads,
01:10:08I spent one week in San Francisco.
01:10:10This is an independent clause.
01:10:12It could stand alone as a sentence.
01:10:15The last clause reads,
01:10:17I visited the nearby Napa Valley with my cousin.
01:10:20Again, it's another independent clause, and it could also stand alone as a sentence.
01:10:25So, in this case, we have a subordinate clause followed by two independent clauses.
01:10:31What kind of sentence does this make?
01:10:33A compound, complex sentence.
01:10:36So, this shows exactly how these different types of sentences work.
01:10:42And I think you can see that combining independent with subordinate clauses in various ways
01:10:48gives you the flexibility to bring together in a single sentence ideas that are related to one another
01:10:55or that belong together and that add up to a complete whole.
01:10:59And the more practice you have in writing in English,
01:11:02the better you'll get at using each of these four different types of sentences appropriately
01:11:08in order to express increasingly complex ideas.
01:11:17Well, that concludes our discussion of sentence structure.
01:11:20You've learned about the basic parts of any sentence,
01:11:24about the most common types of sentences,
01:11:26and you've also learned about the errors that you need to avoid
01:11:30when constructing a sentence properly
01:11:32in order to earn high grades on papers that you might write for school,
01:11:37as well as to express yourself effectively and correctly
01:11:42in any writing that you do on the job or in any other life situation.
01:11:47I hope you found this program to be helpful,
01:11:49and you're invited to view the other programs in Video Aided Instruction's English grammar series
01:11:55in order to further strengthen your comfort level with the complexities of English grammar.
01:12:01Thank you for watching, and good luck in your future endeavors.
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