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00:00The Sphinx guards the only surviving wonder of the ancient world, the mighty pyramids at Giza.
00:18They were built for the pharaohs of the Egyptian Old Kingdom, a civilization that lasted for almost
00:25a thousand years before mysteriously collapsing. Archaeologists are now discovering that the
00:33sudden end was one of most unimaginable horror.
00:40We had a pile of three skeletons in this position. An old man over an old woman over a child.
00:49All of them in contorted attitudes. The woman like this, the man with hands up,
00:54and the child was too disintegrated to save.
01:095,000 years ago, long before the time of Tutankhamun, before Ramesses, before Queen
01:16Nefertiti, the first great civilization was established in Egypt.
01:24The Egyptian Old Kingdom's lasting legacy is the Sphinx, and the Great Pyramids at Giza.
01:42The Pyramids are royal tombs for the Old Kingdom's pharaohs, protecting their mummified bodies for eternity.
02:02The pharaohs united Egypt, and the Old Kingdom flourished.
02:19They developed a unique style of art, architecture, architecture, and literature.
02:30It was a civilization that was remarkably stable and resilient, and the daily life of the average
02:37Egyptian remained unchanged for nearly a thousand years.
02:42But then, 4,200 years ago, the Old Kingdom suddenly collapsed.
02:52The pharaohs' power crumbled. Central government failed.
03:04Egypt was plunged into a dark age, which lasted for more than a hundred years.
03:14It's an episode in history, which has mystified Egyptologists.
03:21For the last 30 years, Egyptian archaeologist Fekri Hassan has been looking for his own explanation
03:41of why Egypt turned from stability to chaos.
03:46I felt compelled to find out why did it happen when it did,
03:52especially when Egypt was doing so well, when we had the pyramids, when we had temples,
03:57when we had statues, when we had major achievements in arts, literature, and everything else.
04:02Why did it end at that time?
04:05And so, I had to pursue that question.
04:08I had to find out, for myself, the reasons for the sudden and unprecedented collapse over the Old Kingdom.
04:17Fekri Hassan has always challenged orthodoxy.
04:29The conventional wisdom is that the Old Kingdom fell apart after the death of a pharaoh,
04:35and the battle for succession caused a major political conflict.
04:40For Fekri, this just didn't ring true.
04:58The first seed of doubt was planted in 1971,
05:02when Fekri found evidence of something far more devastating than political unrest.
05:07This little-known tomb in southern Egypt has an astonishing story to tell.
05:24The tomb belongs not to a pharaoh, but to a local governor called Anktifi,
05:39who lived just after the collapse of the Old Kingdom.
05:47For me, personally, it's an incredible find.
05:51This is a remarkable tomb.
05:55This is one of the most outstanding tombs in all of Egypt.
06:03It's in Anktifi's writings that Fekri found the vital clue.
06:08The hieroglyphs tell of horrendous famines,
06:11and the sufferings of ordinary people.
06:13It is rarely that we have a voice from the past that gives us a poignant account of what has happened,
06:24of the horrors, the famines that happened 4,000 years ago.
06:29And to have them reported in such a concise and clear fashion is unprecedented.
06:41The entire country has become like a starved grasshopper.
06:47I managed it that no one died of hunger.
06:53One small section is particularly moving.
06:57It tells of the despair and the atrocities during the famines which were ravaging the south of Egypt.
07:03All of Upper Egypt was dying of hunger to such a degree that everyone had come to eating their children.
07:19For Fekri, the writing on the wall was far too powerful to be ignored.
07:27But taking Anktifi's hieroglyphs literally brought him into conflict with most Egyptologists.
07:34When Anktifi talks about people dying out of starvation, I would take it with a pinch of salt.
07:46This is just typical Egyptian rhetoric which you can mount to exaggeration.
07:52There is no way that the statements made here are exaggerations.
07:59It is definitely a description of actual events.
08:03The text that we have here is not a folk tale.
08:06It is not a mythological statement.
08:08It is an actual account.
08:10It is an evidence that we can read and interpret like anything else.
08:14Like any observation is subject to analysis and examination.
08:18And that text can be analyzed and can be examined.
08:22And I find it credible.
08:29Becari felt compelled to prove that these writings were true,
08:38that Egypt had suffered devastating famines.
08:40But for years he was thwarted by the lack of any hard evidence of the suffering.
08:46Then in 1996, archaeological evidence emerged for the first time.
09:16A new discovery in the far north revealed the scale of the suffering at the end of the Old Kingdom.
09:36Archaeologists were excavating in the Nile Delta, far removed from the glamorous tombs and pyramids of the rest of Egypt.
09:45The guidebook describes this site as a place that only dedicated archaeologists can get excited about.
09:57Donald Redford is constantly excited at what he finds here.
10:04When we began to excavate, I was surprised, and still am, to find just under the surface,
10:11poor burials under reed matting, in some cases so tightly packed, one against the other, that you almost literally tripped over them.
10:20They found a staggering number of bodies, nearly 9,000.
10:29And something else was unusual about these burials.
10:36Wherever we set pick in soil was a burial, a supine on the back or on the side, under a reed mat, with very few grave goods, if any.
10:47And so we naturally concluded, and we must conclude in all cases, that these were the very poor.
10:53And they all dated to the same period.
10:56Donald and his team were amazed at the sheer quantity of poor people buried here.
11:02They'd found a community reduced to extreme poverty, and the date coincided exactly with the end of the Old Kingdom.
11:11I have not actually run into this kind of thing before.
11:18I think what we see here parallels what is happening elsewhere in Egypt.
11:23Everything is breaking down, across the board.
11:25It's not just in one category of human activity, but everywhere.
11:30Society, art, religion, economy, it's all cracking up and breaking down.
11:35And I think here, for the first time, we have evidence of it in dirt archaeology.
11:40Confirmation of that final and rather sudden destruction of the Egyptian civilization of the Old Kingdom.
11:49Donald's discovery suggested that the descriptions in An-Katifi's tomb of widespread famine must be true.
12:07Fekri realized that whatever had caused devastation on such a large scale must have been an apocalyptic event.
12:31My hunch from the beginning was that it has to do with the environment in which the Egyptians lived.
12:42It has to do with the environment in which they depended on their livelihood,
12:46that would have contributed to this sudden event.
12:49Because I could not see any evidence in the archaeological record
12:56that would lead me to think that it would just suddenly break down like this.
13:08Of all the forces in the natural environment of Egypt, one dominates the River Nile.
13:23The ancient Greek author Herodotus described the Nile as a gift from the gods,
13:28a belief that most modern Egyptians cling to passionately.
13:34Well, a relationship with the Nile, I think, is a love relationship.
13:37And I don't think I'm the only one. I think all the Egyptians have a love affair with the Nile.
13:41The Egyptian civilization is about the Nile. It's about loving the Nile.
13:46And it runs in the veins. It runs in the blood. It's part of your being. You grow up with it. That's in you.
13:55I've just been thinking that if you commit yourself for a lifelong relationship like this, it has to be passion.
14:14Without the Nile, Egypt would not exist because it relied on annual floods for survival.
14:20Every year, rains in the south would bring floodwaters to the Nile Valley, inundating the area with rich, fertile mud.
14:30Once the water had subsided, planting could begin.
14:37For Fekhri, the fascination with the life and death powers of the Nile floods goes back a long time.
14:55I think one of the major turning points of my life was when I came here with my mother when I was about six years old.
15:02And I've never seen a flood before. There was water all over the place on the banks of the Nile.
15:08I was terrified. I was amazed that this could happen.
15:12I think from that point on, I began to think that the Nile may not be that gentle river that has always flowed in a steady manner,
15:25nurturing Egyptian civilization, that there may be another side to the river, a dark side, a dangerous side.
15:34So dangerous that Fekhri believed the Nile was implicated in the catastrophe that destroyed the Old Kingdom.
15:41To many Egyptian historians, the very suggestion was tantamount to heresy.
15:46I've been reading history from the very early beginnings of man in Egypt until now.
15:55And I can see a pattern that's going on for these thousands of years.
16:01The regular thing is that the Nile comes. We know that the Nile is good.
16:05We know that the Nile is always faithful. And we know that the Nile will come next year.
16:11I believe in that as I believe in God.
16:24Faced with such burning conviction, Fekhri knew he had to find some proof that the Nile was not always Egypt's faithful ally.
16:32He decided to look back in time to the 7th century AD, when the Arabs conquered Egypt.
16:45Every year they measured the level of the Nile floods in Cairo on this column.
16:50The meticulous records they kept for over a thousand years were a revelation.
16:55When I began to look at the Nile record, I was under the impression that the Nile was a normal river with not that much change in the amount of water it brings every year.
17:10I was quite struck to find that there are a lot of variations from year to year, from decade to decade, from century to century and later on found from millennium to millennium.
17:19That really shattered my ideas that were based on a myth that assumed that the Nile is a steady river.
17:28It flows every year. People all what they have to do were just so few grains and everything is wonderful.
17:32You know, Egypt is the gift of the Nile. That is not true at all.
17:37I think when I found that one out of every five floods was a bad flood, I was totally shocked.
17:47And so I think that discovery changed my views totally about not only the Nile, but about how Egyptian civilization was developed and how it eventually collapsed.
18:02And so I think that the Nile was a good thing.
18:07Alarmingly, Fekhri had also discovered that only a small drop in the Nile flood could have disastrous ramifications.
18:14A fact not lost on one of Europe's greatest military strategists.
18:21In 1791 and 2, the Nile flood was only a metre or two below average.
18:27But people starved, there were riots, and the political consequences were calamitous.
18:34Hearing that the country was so debilitated, Napoleon seized the initiative and conquered Egypt.
18:40Fekhri now realised that any failure of the Nile could have far-reaching consequences.
18:53But he was puzzled. He'd found records of low floods for two to three years.
18:59But the dark age had lasted for over a hundred years.
19:03It seemed impossible for the Nile to fail for such a long period.
19:07Maybe there was something far bigger involved.
19:10Maybe there was something far bigger involved.
19:14Maybe there were a few times like the Nile to find the Nile-Vhaz, or not.
19:17Maybe there was something far bigger, since they had no idea for it.
19:18Why would they have no idea for the Nile-Vhaz is a whole of the Nile-Vhaz.
19:20Maybe there were some sort of things in the sea-land and they were like the Nile-Vhaz.
19:21How did they actually17 yearling the Nile?
19:22Fekhri decided to look at the other natural feature that lies at the heart of Egyptian life.
19:39The desert.
19:41Fekri has come with his wife, botanist Hala Barakat, to the most southerly part of Egypt
19:56to search for clues.
20:04Today, this remote land is one of the country's most inhospitable deserts.
20:09But thousands of years ago, people lived here.
20:14Hala is scouring the desert for traces of these ancient people.
20:23She's looking for small piles of stones, telltale signs of their campsites.
20:32At night, they gathered wood for a fire.
20:36Fragments of the charred embers still survive under the stones.
20:40And hidden in these tiny bits of charcoal is vital evidence.
20:51Back in the lab, Hala identifies the different firewoods.
20:54She finds traces of the acacia tree, which is no longer found in this desert.
21:03We're looking at the charcoal of acacia tree.
21:07It's very distinctive by the presence of the big vessels.
21:11When we find the charcoal of acacia, it means that at the time when it was growing, there was underground water.
21:22You only find them in depressions or in oases, where water accumulates.
21:28They need water to grow.
21:29Hala painstakingly collected and dated thousands of pieces of charcoal from all over the desert.
21:38The result was quite startling.
21:40about 7 000 years ago there were trees growing here not exactly a forest but a dry savannah
21:52with grass growing between the trees after the rainy season it was certainly a place where people
21:58could live over time vast swathes of north africa dried up and became a desert
22:14poets wrote of the devastation caused by sand
22:31indeed the desert is throughout the land
22:44the desert claims the land the land is injured towns are ravaged
22:50the sun is failed none can live where the dust storm fails it
22:57we do not know what will happen throughout the land
23:01could the change from grass to desert be the cause of the sudden breakdown of the old kingdom
23:104 200 years ago
23:12unfortunately for fekri the dates didn't fit
23:18i personally do not think that the gradual dislocation of north africa was the main cause for the collapse of the old kingdom
23:26the deserts that we know today
23:324 500 years ago were fully established by that time
23:36the change was a gradual it had abrupt events in it but it was in general a gradual trend
23:42lasting for several millennia
23:48so the slow desert encroachment was completed well before the collapse of the old kingdom
23:54this was not the cause of its demise
23:56there has to be another cause
24:02there has to be another cause
24:04there has to be another cause to explain the sudden and dramatic event that coincided with the end of the old kingdom
24:12then came a breakthrough
24:26a new discovery in the hills of neighboring israel
24:30in these caves
24:46mirabar matthews has found a unique record of past climates
24:50all the water here comes from rainfall
24:56as the rain filters down through the rock
25:00it dissolves the limestone
25:02forming stalactites and stalagmites
25:04and as these gradually build up over the years
25:08they trap ancient rainwater
25:18mirabar has discovered a way of calculating rainfall thousands of years ago
25:23by taking tiny samples of the stalactites
25:30the ancient rain contains two different types of oxygen
25:33a light one and a heavier one
25:37if there is more of the light type
25:39it was a very wet period
25:41more of the heavy one means it was dry
25:47analyzing the samples in a mass spectrometer
25:49gives the ratio of light and heavy oxygen
25:58mirabar had been analyzing stalactites stretching back over thousands of years
26:03when she got to one sample 4,200 years old
26:13as soon as she saw the results
26:15she knew something unusual had happened
26:18the striking finding was
26:21that there is a very important change in the amount of rainfall
26:28that was in this area
26:33mirabar had found a staggering 20% drop in rainfall
26:38this suggested a sudden and significant climate change
26:45this drop is dramatic
26:48this event is the largest event over the last 5,000 years
27:02even though Egypt and Israel have different weather systems
27:05this finding was very exciting
27:07rapid climate change was the culprit Fekri had been searching for
27:19he believed it was the prime suspect in the catastrophe that destroyed the old kingdom
27:24the reason why this powerful civilization disintegrated at the height of its glory
27:30I firmly believe that in addition to gradual changes on millennial scale
27:49climatic change can also happen very very rapidly suddenly
27:53and swiftly with dramatic consequences for people
27:59because abrupt climatic events happen very rapidly within a few decades
28:19they can influence the livelihood of people causing famines and droughts
28:24they are of such magnitude and of such rapidity
28:27that people cannot deal with them in the way they would deal with a protracted long-term climatic change
28:33Fekri now needed to know if the sudden climate change discovered in the Israeli cave was not a localized event
28:40but part of a much larger weather pattern that would have affected Egypt too
28:47and the evidence to back him up came out of the blue
28:48from the glaciers of Iceland
28:54from the glaciers of Iceland
29:01from the glaciers of Iceland
29:07and the evidence to back him up came out of the blue
29:10from the glaciers of Iceland
29:14geologist Gerard Bond is also searching for clues about ancient climate
29:21climates and he does it by looking at icebergs
29:36the ones he's particularly interested in are streaked with black ash
29:59can you make out the black?
30:01these are particles of volcanic material
30:05this material comes from the volcanoes here in Iceland
30:08some of it is scraped up as the ice moves over the rock
30:13some of it pours down from the mountainsides
30:16that the glaciers are moving through
30:18and some of it is dumped on the ice by volcanic eruptions
30:22Gerard follows the journey the icebergs take after they leave Iceland
30:34and drift south in the North Atlantic
30:37when the icebergs reach warmer waters
30:41they melt and specks of ash fall to the bottom of the ocean
30:45and that's where they stay
30:47embedded in the deep sea mud
30:49which gradually builds up over time
30:51Gerard and his team have collected thousands of cores of mud
31:05from the world's oceans
31:06with deposits from the last 10,000 years
31:09as he searched the mud from the North Atlantic looking for traces of volcanic ash
31:15he was surprised
31:16he was finding ash in some very strange places
31:27some were so far south
31:29it showed that the icebergs had travelled an extraordinarily long way before melting
31:33this could only happen in periods of extreme cold
31:57and even more intriguing
31:59there was a pattern to these mini ice ages
32:05what we found to our surprise was that
32:07not only were there suggestions that the climate was not stable
32:12but every 1500 years was a distinct cold period
32:18lasting a couple of hundred years perhaps
32:23but what did a 1500 year weather cycle have to do with famine in Egypt?
32:28one of these cycles had an age of 4,200 years
32:34so what that would mean about the weather
32:37it was cool enough at that time
32:39for icebergs to have gotten as far south as off Ireland
32:46and it occurred at about the same time as the event that you're interested in in Egypt
32:50so a mini ice age creating freezing conditions across Europe
32:58happened when Egypt was suffering from extreme famines
33:02this could easily have stayed as a mere coincidence
33:08but Gerard's work alerted fellow geologist Peter de Menachal
33:20when he searched the climate records for the rest of the world
33:26looking at everything from pollen to sand
33:29he found an even more dramatic climate change
33:33it was very exciting
33:35it was something that we really were not expecting
33:37we were using techniques that were meant to go after very very small
33:42climate signals in these deep sea sediments
33:44and what we found was this whopping huge signal
33:47and so we were shocked
33:48I mean we didn't expect to see something so large
33:51and it's as if you're going after a mouse and you catch a lion
33:55you know it's just it's remarkable
33:57it was a very very dramatic event that we see
34:06not only was this change sudden
34:08but the ancient climate data revealed just how far reaching it was
34:13well what's fascinating is that it seems that everywhere we look we find this event
34:24we see it in the Mediterranean
34:26and then we see evidence off of Africa
34:29we see it throughout the North Atlantic
34:31in many locations here in the North Atlantic
34:34we also see evidence for it in Greenland
34:37in the Greenland ice sheet
34:38we see it in the United States
34:40in the continental United States
34:42and most recently there's been evidence now that we actually see it
34:45in the Indonesian region
34:47which if it's been seen there
34:49that is a very important result
34:51because it shows that it's truly a global event
34:53that we're seeing it far afield
35:07what we see is that the climate change event
35:10occurs at the same time as the collapse of the Old Kingdom
35:13it's an event that
35:15in terms of the change in climate was really profound
35:18not only in its size and how large the event was
35:22but also in how widespread it was
35:27scientists were at last confirming everything Fekri believed
35:31severe climate change was causing widespread human misery 4,200 years ago
35:38as colder and drier conditions swept the globe
35:53harvests failed and people starved
35:55they were victims of a weather cycle out of their control
36:02they were victims of a weather cycle out of their control
36:06it really is a very sobering thought to imagine what it must have been like
36:18to have been these people
36:19and to have been struggling with climate as they were at the time
36:23and then ultimately to have succumbed to it
36:25and nowhere was this human suffering more acute than in Egypt
36:42in Egypt
36:59everybody there's no way out
37:01Donald Redford and his team
37:03had already discovered that this ruined city was poverty-stricken
37:07at the end of the Old Kingdom
37:14but in 1999 he made a macabre new find
37:18it showed in chilling detail
37:20the extent of the chaos that Fekri believes the sudden climate change had triggered
37:25he found a group of skeletons lying underneath a temple wall
37:40I find that the destruction is everywhere
37:43moreover it's associated with what I would consider a massacre
37:47that puts it right out of the realm of accidental occurrence
37:54over the years
38:01Donald has uncovered thousands of skeletons
38:04but he was extremely distressed when he found this particular collection of bodies
38:15there were 18 of them
38:17in fact their position was rather dramatic
38:19we had a pile of three skeletons in this position
38:22an old man over an old woman over a child
38:26all of them in contorted attitudes
38:28the woman like this
38:29the man with hands up
38:31on top of the wall at that point
38:35were two adult males
38:37one sprawled over the wall
38:39with part of the wall having fallen on his back
38:41at this point there were two males
38:48with a pig in the middle of all things
38:51and in front of the temple
38:53right on the axis
38:54was a fallen teenager
38:56a sub-adult
38:57with a rat clutched in his hand
38:59uh... sprawled like that
39:04as though he had been in the act of
39:06perhaps running any trip
39:08and that was the end for him
39:09uh... he lacked a head
39:11as though someone had decapitated him
39:17Donald will never know exactly what happened here
39:20but he believes the 18 people who died had been murdered
39:26but most significantly
39:28in a culture where the dead were always treated with respect
39:31these bodies had not been buried
39:35it was a very grisly scene
39:37the interesting thing is
39:39that no one ever came back to retrieve the bodies
39:41now if this had been an accidental conflagration
39:44with people dying by accident
39:46undoubtedly their relatives would have retrieved the bodies
39:48given them proper burial
39:51no one was around to get them
39:53no one was here who cared to get them
39:56there is a real seizure
39:58there's a real hiatus
40:00in the life of the community
40:01at this point
40:02it's almost as though
40:03with their deaths
40:04and the destruction of the temple
40:05the place was abandoned
40:18from stalactites in israel to icebergs in iceland
40:28From stalactites in israel to icebergs in iceland
40:33From stalactites in Israel to icebergs in Iceland,
40:42Fekhri already had compelling evidence
40:44that this traumatic human crisis was linked to a global climate change.
40:50But one piece of the puzzle was still missing.
40:54Would he be able to find any scientific proof of climate disaster in Egypt itself?
40:59He still needed to know if the country's lifeblood, the Nile,
41:05had failed for decade after decade.
41:12The crucial evidence was to come from this lake.
41:17It's an unusual place.
41:21During the Old Kingdom, it was linked directly to the Nile by a tributary.
41:25When the Nile floods arrived every year, the lake would get much bigger.
41:38So if Fekhri can discover the size of the lake at the end of the Old Kingdom,
41:43he'll know whether the Nile floods failed.
41:45He decided to search the mud at the bottom of the lake for answers.
41:59And what he found was intriguing.
42:14Actually, it's more what he didn't find that fascinated him.
42:17They looked everywhere for sediments dating back to the Old Kingdom.
42:29They looked in the middle of the lake.
42:31They looked at the sides.
42:33It was a real mystery.
42:34The huge surprise is that we can't find the Old Kingdom sediments at the bottom of the lake where they should be.
42:43It's nowhere to be found.
42:45They couldn't find any mud dating back that far.
42:49It was as if the lake somehow didn't exist during the Old Kingdom.
42:53But Fekhri knows from the ancient records that there was a lake here.
43:01He was quite bewildered.
43:04Then one day, it dawned on him why they were failing so miserably to find anything.
43:11There's only one explanation.
43:13The lake must have dried up totally, completely.
43:16And then the sediments were being blown away by storms.
43:22So the Old Kingdom sediments are gone.
43:26They have vanished.
43:40The fact that such a huge lake could vanish so dramatically was extraordinary.
43:46The Nile must have been so low it had stopped feeding the lake.
43:50What's remarkable is that this is the only time in its whole history that the lake completely dried up.
43:58And it happened just at the end of the Old Kingdom.
44:05Here at last was Fekhri's clinching evidence.
44:08A catastrophic global climate change caused a series of low Nile floods year after year, turning the land to dust.
44:17This was the explanation for the severe famines affecting the whole of Egypt.
44:32Sandstorms smothered the land.
44:35In one of the mightiest civilizations ever known, people were starving to death.
44:40And it was these scenes that were described so vividly on the walls of Ankitifi's tomb.
45:03Although Fekhri's quest is over, one poignant section still puzzles him.
45:23All of Upper Egypt was dying of hunger to such a degree that everyone had come to eating their children.
45:33It's an astonishing description.
45:36Were people so desperate that they resorted to cannibalism?
45:40I was startled when I saw Ankitifi's account of people eating children in ancient Egypt because this is something that we just do not think about.
45:52We cannot imagine that such events, such horrendous events have happened in ancient Egypt.
46:00But I was not surprised because I knew that this has happened later in time and that we do have a first-hand eyewitness account of a famine associated with a drought, a low Nile that lasted for a couple of years and have led to atrocious activities by people, including eating children, among other things.
46:30The first-hand account came from a book written by a doctor from Baghdad who'd witnessed a famine in Cairo in 1200 AD.
46:47In his vivid description was a haunting echo of the tragedy that befell the Old Kingdom.
46:53He said that the poor were so oppressed by hunger that they ate corpses, carrion, dogs, and filth, and that they even went beyond that to eat children.
47:13And so at times you can come upon people with roasted and cooked children.
47:22A frank, straightforward account with no sentimentality, but it reveals the horrendous level of depredation that happened at that time.
47:35If this could happen in a famine that only lasted a couple of years, the horrors of one spanning several decades are truly unimaginable.
47:50The collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom was a hideous end to one of the world's great civilizations.
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48:33Transcription by CastingWords
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