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00:00This is Tom Brady.
00:02He's the greatest American football quarterback of all time.
00:05Holy shit.
00:06Can you hear it go by you?
00:07Yeah, it's scary.
00:09He's won seven Super Bowls and has thrown the most touchdown passes in history.
00:15Oh, that one hurt the chest. I heard that.
00:18Right in the chest.
00:19I'm glad I'm not catching those.
00:21Every quarterback takes pride in their ability to throw a tight spiral.
00:25The tighter the spiral you throw means the more control you have of the football.
00:29We analyzed his throw in detail.
00:32Have people shot you in really slow motion for the release and everything?
00:35Never.
00:36And discovered something surprising.
00:38Even Tom Brady can't throw a perfect spiral.
00:42Just look.
00:43Said hut!
00:44On his deep passes, no matter how hard he tries to spin the ball cleanly around its long axis,
00:49if you look closely enough, you'll notice this little wobble.
00:53Not only that, there's a slight drift to the ball,
00:56which means even Tom Brady can't throw straight.
00:59Virtually all his long passes curve to the right.
01:03But these aren't mistakes.
01:05They're actually fundamental to the physics of throwing a football accurately.
01:09To find out why, we ran a full computational fluid dynamics analysis, tested spinning balls in a wind tunnel,
01:16and even embedded sensors in real footballs.
01:19That's crazy!
01:21Now, admittedly, who are we to tell Tom Brady anything about football?
01:26I've never really played much football.
01:29I grew up in Canada.
01:30I'd be much happier to be playing hockey.
01:33Like, why can't I throw at all?
01:36That is so rough.
01:38Okay, well, he'll walk you through it.
01:39I'm not going to bother doing it right now.
01:41Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah.
01:42Try to do this.
01:43Over-exaggerate the tilt.
01:44So, instead of standing straight up.
01:46Lean forward.
01:47Lean like you're almost like a shortstop, right?
01:49Yeah, yeah.
01:50And like you're falling over.
01:51Yeah.
01:52And then you're just here.
01:53Like that.
01:54Good catch.
01:55So lean over a little bit.
01:56Like not ready for it.
01:57So get down like a shortstop.
01:58Yeah, yeah.
01:59Even more?
02:00Yeah, now throw a sidearm.
02:01I feel like this is weird.
02:02There you go.
02:03That was a better throw.
02:04That is a better throw.
02:05It was really good.
02:06What's the key to throwing like a really tight spiral?
02:08The key to me is, first of all, you got to have very light grip pressure on the football.
02:14I learned over a period of time that I had to be really efficient with my mechanics.
02:18I had to have all my energy going right toward the target with a very relaxed posture.
02:23And then it's a really smooth, efficient throwing motion.
02:26And then how are you actually imparting the spin to the ball?
02:29So you're really popping your wrist at the end.
02:31Thanks.
02:32I can even go really slow and just pop my wrist at the end.
02:36And even that little bit of wrist pop will create a little snap on the ball as it releases
02:41from my fingertips.
02:42Henry, you can't drop the easy one.
02:45That snap and the spin it creates is the key to Brady's record breaking throw.
02:50But the big question is, why?
02:52I mean, what does the spin actually do to the football?
02:56It seems like such a simple question.
02:59But the physics turned out to be much more complicated than I initially thought.
03:03In fact, physicists studying the problem didn't get close to the real answer until just five years ago.
03:09So let's break it down from the start.
03:12A question for Tom is, can he throw the ball without spinning it?
03:15Like a knuckleball?
03:16Yeah.
03:17Can you knuckleball a football?
03:18Yeah, I could try.
03:19Can I throw it underhand?
03:20Yeah, yeah, yeah.
03:21Whatever you want to toss it.
03:23Even overhand, there's no way to do it without getting a spin on it or it's just going to mess with you?
03:27I mean, you'd have to almost throw it sideways.
03:29Yeah, yeah.
03:31That spun a little bit.
03:33When you launch a ball without spin, perfectly aligned with the direction of motion, it seems like the air flowing over the ball will be totally symmetric.
03:42But this is unstable.
03:44Any slight disturbance like a tiny bit of wind will cause more air to hit one side than the other.
03:50And that starts to change the ball's orientation.
03:54And now more area on that side is exposed to the oncoming air, so it deflects even more.
04:00So drag on the ball increases, it's pushed off course, and it can begin to tumble.
04:06The total drag force on the ball is proportional to the area presented to the airflow and the drag coefficient.
04:13That's just a measure of how streamlined an object is.
04:16Pointed straight in the direction of motion, a football is pretty streamlined with a drag coefficient of just 0.14.
04:23That's better than a bullet.
04:26But on its side, the drag coefficient is 0.85, which is worse than a cow.
04:32Man, I'm learning a lot today.
04:34That's what I'm going to use with all the quarterbacks going, man, your drag coefficient sucks.
04:38What are we doing?
04:40We need 0.14, 0.85, no good.
04:43To make matters worse, when a football is going sideways, it exposes nearly 70% more area to the oncoming air.
04:50And combined with the higher drag coefficient, this means that the drag force is 10 times greater than when the football is aligned with the throw.
04:59So an unspinning ball can end up going sideways, meaning it decelerates up to 10 times faster.
05:05Plus, as it tumbles, the air pushes on it in different directions, making it move unpredictably.
05:10Now, in some cases, you actually want this.
05:14Like when kicking the ball back to the other team,
05:16punters sometimes intentionally kick the ball end over end so that it gets pushed around erratically.
05:21That makes it far harder for the opposing team to predict where the ball is going to go and get under it.
05:26But when you're passing to your own team, you want the ball to be predictable and go as fast and as far as possible.
05:33And for that, you need spin.
05:38The benefits of spin really became clear in the mid-1800s during the Crimean War.
05:43Back then, soldiers were armed with muskets that fired round lead balls.
05:48And to make reloading faster on the battlefield, these musket balls were made significantly smaller than the barrel.
05:54But when the gunpowder was ignited, some of the expanding gases would then escape around the bullet, making the bullet's exit velocity unpredictable.
06:02This, combined with inconsistent manufacturing and the round ball's poor aerodynamics, meant that muskets were somewhat unreliable.
06:10There was a British Army musketry instructor who famously said,
06:15I'm willing to stand and be shot at all day long as long as whoever's shooting at me with the smoothbore musket promises to aim at me every single time.
06:25Because he knew the bullet's never actually going to go where the gun is being aimed.
06:31All of that changed in the fall of 1854.
06:34Russian troops huddled in Sevastopol under siege by French and British forces.
06:39The soldiers watched as British troops set up on a distant hillside.
06:43They were far out of standard musket range, so the Russians weren't worried.
06:47When suddenly, a window shatters.
06:51They were shooting through the windows of the Russian barracks at their naval base.
06:56It's lost about 900 yards away. They're shooting bullets through the windows.
07:02But these were no ordinary bullets.
07:05Eight years earlier, an enterprising French army officer, Claude Etienne Minier, made a breakthrough.
07:12He developed a conical bullet with a hollow base and an iron plug that would fit into it.
07:17So when fired, the gas pressure drove the plug into the base, which expanded the bullet, pressing it firmly against the barrel walls so no gas could escape.
07:27This made the bullet's muzzle velocity much more predictable.
07:31But it also enabled something else.
07:33The expanded bullet could grip spiral grooves carved into the inside of the barrel, called rifling.
07:40This imparted spin to the bullet as it shot out.
07:43And this is key, because all spinning objects have a fundamental quantity they can serve, angular momentum.
07:49This helps them resist changes in their orientation.
07:54It's just like the spinning top.
07:56Now, without spin, the top just falls over like you'd expect.
08:00But if we add a little bit of spin, we can see that it resists changes in its orientation.
08:05So if I give it a little touch, it reorients itself in the direction of its angular momentum.
08:10A similar thing happens with a spinning bullet.
08:13Its angular momentum resists changes to its axis of rotation.
08:17So even if wind applies an unbalanced force to the bullet, it maintains its orientation.
08:22This reduces drag and helps the projectile fly further, faster, and more accurately.
08:28The exact same thing is going on when Tom Brady throws a tight spiral.
08:33The important part of a spiral is you feel the wind blowing at us.
08:36If the ball wobbles at all, it's going to catch a lot of resistance in the wind.
08:40And it's going to slow the velocity of the ball down a lot, and the accuracy.
08:43The tighter the spiral, and the more it spins, the more it can just rotate through the air.
08:48And the wind will have a less effect on the ball.
08:51So for any good quarterback, the ability to throw a tight spiral is really important when you play in windy conditions.
08:58A spinning ball will maintain its orientation and therefore cut through the air with a smaller frontal area
09:04and a lower drag coefficient.
09:06This all makes sense.
09:08But here's where things get weird.
09:10If the ball is maintaining its orientation, then on a long Hail Mary pass,
09:14it should stay pitched up like this the whole time.
09:18Just like when it was thrown.
09:20But that is not what happens.
09:22There's kind of a paradox in football, which is when you release the ball, you're angled, say, positive 30 degrees.
09:29Okay.
09:30And when your receiver catches it, it's angled negative 30 degrees.
09:33Perfect. I love that.
09:35So what we just said was angular momentum makes the ball hard to pivot.
09:38Okay.
09:39But what we saw was it pitches from this to this in four seconds.
09:42What is it turnover?
09:43Yes.
09:44Is what we would call that.
09:45Now turnover is essential to a good throw because it means at every point along the arc,
09:50the ball's orientation stays closely aligned with its direction of motion.
09:55That means it stays pointed directly into the airflow, which minimizes drag.
09:59Now, sure, you might think this isn't that crazy.
10:02I mean, arrows and birdies align themselves along the path of the arc as well.
10:05But that works in these cases because the objects are front weighted.
10:09The feathers catch the air and get pushed behind the heavier tip, which leads the way.
10:13But football is totally different.
10:15I mean, it doesn't have feathers or fins and its weight is evenly distributed along its axis.
10:20So it just can't use the same mechanisms to align itself.
10:23So in 2020, the editor in chief of the American Journal of Physics decided to figure it out.
10:29I was surprised at how many bad explanations that were easy to debunk got published.
10:36When you think about it, it doesn't make any sense.
10:39Because the air resistance would push the nose of the football up.
10:46And you want the nose of the football to go down.
10:50So it's pretty curious.
10:52So Price put together a theoretical model to explain the football's turnover.
10:56And today, we're going to see whether his findings hold up by simulating Tom Brady's own throws in a wind tunnel.
11:03The idea of having anything to do with Tom Brady, whom I greatly respect.
11:10Not only because of his skill, but because of his work ethic.
11:13It's otherworldly.
11:15We have these sensors in these balls.
11:18So we should be able to see how fast the balls are actually going from inside the ball.
11:22And just to be sure, I'm measuring the speed of these balls the old fashioned way.
11:26A decision I might regret.
11:28Do you want to go right on the side of the dummy with the gun?
11:30I'll throw it right over your head.
11:33I won't hit you.
11:34Trust me.
11:35Yeah, right there.
11:36Perfect.
11:37You ready?
11:38Yep.
11:3945.
11:40Maybe scoot just a smidge more that way.
11:45Perfect.
11:46Holy ****.
11:5746.
11:58You can do another one?
12:00Yeah.
12:0749.
12:09God, that's scary.
12:11That's like 80 kilometers an hour.
12:13But would you actually use that speed in a game?
12:15That'd have to be a good speed.
12:16That's a normal pass.
12:17That's like terrifying.
12:19And that's just for a regular throw.
12:22For his long throws, the speed jumps even higher.
12:24Over 60 miles per hour.
12:26That's almost 100 kilometers per hour.
12:29Now, I'm not about to step in front of that cannon.
12:31I was not built for being an athlete.
12:33You're built for analyzing.
12:34That's right.
12:35I'm here for the data.
12:36And that's why I've got Henry here.
12:38Ooh.
12:39Ooh, that one hurt the chest.
12:40I heard that.
12:41So you don't want to swap in, Derek?
12:43You're doing great.
12:44When Tom Brady is throwing, you've got to react fast.
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14:29And now, back to Tom Brady.
14:32Have people shot you in really slow motion for the release and everything?
14:35Did you ever watch that back?
14:36Never.
14:37You guys ready?
14:39I'm ready.
14:40Three.
14:41Two.
14:42One.
14:45Oh, my God.
14:46Are you good?
14:47You good, Ricky?
14:48Yeah, yeah, I'm good.
14:49I'm good.
14:50Is that plexi or is that real glass?
14:52It's plexiglass.
14:53That's incredible.
14:54You get one shot at these things.
14:56Oh, all right.
14:57I'd have given it my best.
14:58Should we try one more even if the camera breaks?
14:59I don't see the cracks.
15:01Wow.
15:02So we can go again.
15:03Let's try one more.
15:04Let me just throw a little harder.
15:05Go!
15:06Now we're broken.
15:07That went right there.
15:08Are we able to watch the throw back?
15:12Good spiral.
15:13Oh, that's so cool.
15:14The sensors show Brady's maximum spin rate on this day was 628 revolutions per minute.
15:31So armed with this data, let's analyze Brady's throws in a wind tunnel.
15:38How much data are you used to getting?
15:40Zero.
15:41Really?
15:42When I played, none of it was available.
15:47So this is the low-speed wind tunnel here at the university.
15:50This wind tunnel facility can get up to about Mach 0.2, so 20% of the speed of sound.
15:54Typically, this wind tunnel is used in the development of advanced wing geometries for innovative,
15:59sustainable aircraft design.
16:01But today, it's being used for football.
16:04We have just a sting mount, mounted to a turntable.
16:08We actually have a six-component load cell here.
16:11And with this six-component load cell, we can measure all three components of force and torque.
16:15We then have an electric motor, right, that we can spin to basically simulate the spiral.
16:21First, we're going to simulate one of Brady's throws where the ball travels straight into the airflow with his classic spiral.
16:28And everything proceeds as we expect.
16:31No significant forces or torques develop.
16:34But during a game, a ball doesn't travel like this in a straight line.
16:39During any throw, its center of mass follows a roughly parabolic trajectory.
16:45So let's say you align the ball perfectly with this parabola when you launch it.
16:50Well then, from the ball's perspective, just a moment later, this parabola starts to curve down away from the ball.
16:57Which means more air will be hitting the underside of the ball than on top.
17:02Now, you would expect this would tilt the ball back.
17:06But that's only what happens if the ball is not spinning.
17:09If it is spinning, then the situation is very different.
17:13Which you can see with this amazing demo.
17:16Imagine this ring of golf balls is like a cross-sectional slice of the football.
17:20Here's what happens when I try and push it back with this leaf blower.
17:23I mean, it tilts back just like you'd expect.
17:27But if I do the exact same thing, but this time get the wheel spinning,
17:32it tilts out to the right.
17:37And you can see why if we slow it down.
17:40So as the ring passes the leaf bar, that's where the force is applied.
17:44But each ball still has momentum in the direction of rotation.
17:48So it actually reaches its peak 90 degrees further along from where the force is applied.
17:53And this is known as gyroscopic precession.
17:57So if the wind was hitting it, it's going to keep the point up.
18:00So you'd think that it would just push it back.
18:02Right.
18:03But because it's spinning, when you push up, it actually tilts to the right.
18:08Oh, interesting.
18:09But it doesn't stop there.
18:11As the ball tilts right, it exposes more area on that side.
18:15So now, because of gyroscopic precession, the ball pitches downward.
18:20And with more air hitting the top of the ball, well, it's going to deflect to the left.
18:26And that is going to make the ball deflect back up.
18:30And now we're back to where we started.
18:32So this cycle is going to repeat.
18:36Since this is happening continuously, the nose traces out a circle around the direction of airflow.
18:42So we get a slow wobble.
18:45We used to joke whenever you would not throw a tight spiral, you would call it a tight wobbler.
18:49That was a Brett Favre coin phrase.
18:51He let it go and it had a little wobble to it and he'd go, oh, tight wobbler.
18:55Now, if the ball were just traveling straight, this would be the whole story.
19:00But remember from before, the ball's path is a parabola.
19:03Meaning that from the ball's perspective, the oncoming air is constantly dipping down away from it.
19:09So the ball is trying to precess around the airflow direction, but that direction is constantly changing.
19:16For example, by the time the ball has reached the bottom of the precession, the airflow has moved down too.
19:24And what that means is the ball is not going to tilt out to the left as much as you'd expect.
19:29So when it precesses back up, it doesn't go as high as where it started.
19:34And over time, it is this that gradually pitches the nose of the football down, keeping it aligned with its parabolic path.
19:46I can visualize at all your fancy science words.
19:49I'm going all the way back to my high school days.
19:51I was a very average science student, but you're teaching me a lot.
19:55As the ball goes through the air, there's going to be more air resistance on the bottom of the ball than on the top.
19:59The front of the ball, not the back, because that's hitting the wind first.
20:02The front, bottom of the ball.
20:03Okay.
20:04And so what that means is it creates this precessive effect that pushes it out, pushes it down, pushes it right.
20:08It creates a wobble no matter what you do.
20:10So the wobble is actually not only impossible to avoid, but it's essential to make sure that the ball follows the path that you want it to follow.
20:17You can see this in the wind tunnel.
20:19We've tilted the ball up by three degrees and it's free to pivot in any direction.
20:24Yeah, you're definitely seeing a pitch.
20:26Oh, that's awesome.
20:28What we're seeing is it's starting out aligning itself about three degrees off, you know, because that's how we spin it up.
20:33But as the airflow starts, it's pointing itself in the direction that minimizes drag.
20:39That's so cool.
20:40I mean, that's exactly what we were expecting, but it's still incredible to see it in person.
20:45If you look at a real football in flight, you'll notice that it spends more time angled slightly to the right when thrown by a right-hander.
20:52That is what creates the force which, through precession, gradually pitches the nose downward.
20:58It creates the turnover effect that Tom Brady was talking about.
21:02I just want to reframe the wobble as not necessarily a bad thing.
21:05Okay, good.
21:06Hey, Manny had a good wobble on the balls, but he found a way to complete a lot of touchdowns that way.
21:11But the rightward lean of the ball also has an unintended side effect.
21:15Something we've heard is that for right-handed throwers, the ball will drift right, and for left-handed throwers, the ball will drift left.
21:22Do you think that's true, or is that something you notice?
21:26So, I wouldn't necessarily agree with that.
21:28So, we got Tom to throw straight down one of the lines on the field.
21:32Is the drone set?
21:36That's a pretty straight throw.
21:37Henry, don't move. You're making it look bad.
21:39I'll stay planted.
21:41The more still you go, the better it looks for my throw.
21:45It's like a catcher when you frame the pitch.
21:47I'll frame it. I'll frame it.
21:49From ground level, his passes looked amazingly straight.
21:53But from the drone, if you watch closely, just at the end of the pass, the ball does drift off to the right.
22:01This is because up until now, we've been ignoring a very important aerodynamic effect, which is lift.
22:07When the ball is tilted to the right, it generates lift out in that direction.
22:12The more it's tilted, the larger this force is.
22:15The rightward tilt is required to get the ball to turn over during its parabolic path.
22:20But it does mean that right-handed throws tend to drift right.
22:24The effect is subtle, but some players notice it intuitively.
22:28In the fall of 1991, Jerry Rice, generally considered the greatest wide receiver of all time, changed quarterbacks.
22:35In place of the right-handed Joe Montana, he was now catching passes from the left-handed Steve Young.
22:40And for Rice, something felt off.
22:43He wasn't sure exactly why, but he said the throws were coming up short.
22:48Of course, what was actually happening was that the ball was drifting away from where he expected it to be.
22:53Joe Montana's right-handed throws drifted to the right, whereas Steve Young's drifted left.
22:59It's a subtle effect, but it's all part of the procession that minimizes drag on the ball and lets it fly farther, faster, and more accurately.
23:08So, it's not because you're a bad quarterback throwing it with a wobble, it's because wind.
23:13You know?
23:14Okay, so what if you're in a dome and there's no wind?
23:16See, that's a great question.
23:17So, I'm just saying this is just air-resistant, so even in a dome, the same thing would happen.
23:21Whether in an outdoor stadium or a closed-top dome, the ball will always wobble.
23:26But outdoor stadiums are significantly harder to throw in because of the wind.
23:31With the ball being thrown at 50 to 60 mph, most of the airflow over the ball is due to its own motion.
23:37But in winds gusting over 15 mph, the weather starts to play a major role.
23:43We commissioned the NFL data team to do an analysis of completion percentage in outdoor stadiums versus indoor domes.
23:50And they found that throws in indoor stadiums are consistently more accurate, no matter the distance.
23:57So, maybe Brady was hard done by Foxborough, New England's stadium.
24:02Do you prefer to throw in a game when it's no wind? Do you prefer wind, rain, snow? Does it matter?
24:09I preferred outdoor, 70 degrees, humid, tiny little breeze just to keep you cool.
24:16Right. But why did you like being outdoors as opposed to being in a dome?
24:21I felt like my depth perception was a little better outside.
24:24I liked just the natural feel of the natural air.
24:28The dome always felt like a vacuum.
24:31Do you think you had an edge if the weather was bad compared to other quarterbacks?
24:36I would say yes. And the reason why is I say I practiced in it all the time.
24:41And I think getting used to the conditions and the familiarity of the wind, of the humidity, of the rain, of the snow, you know, grass field, turf field.
24:51I knew exactly what to wear for every single condition.
24:54I played 23 seasons, 100 to 120 practices a year.
24:59So that's over 2,000 plus practices.
25:02That's crazy.
25:03You know, the thickness you want on your sleeve, you know, okay, what's the temperature?
25:06It's 50 degrees. Okay.
25:07This is the shirt I wear when it's 50 degrees.
25:09Oh, it's 35 degrees.
25:11This is the two shirts I wear when it's 35 degrees.
25:13You know, this is the muff that I wear.
25:15You know, there's how many heat packs I put in the muff to keep my hand warm when it's 30 degrees versus 50 degrees.
25:22You had it all dialed in.
25:23You just have to.
25:24I mean, you just observe over time and you, you know, get better and better.
25:28It's a lot like an F1 car.
25:29You know, everything is just fractions of, you know, things to do to make yourself feel the most comfortable.
25:36So maybe Brady is a bit more scientific than he gives himself credit for.
25:40Over 383 career games, more than 7,700 completed passes, and tens of thousands of hours on the field, Brady intuitively understands all the physics we've just analyzed.
25:52Plus, he knows how to harness these effects to get the ball where he wants it to go with just a few seconds to throw it.
25:59In a game where perfection is impossible, he's internalized all the complex physics, the kinematics, the aerodynamics, and he still makes it look simple.
26:09Yeah, I don't have to move.
26:12So we actually made a video together with Tom Brady teaching us how to throw a football.
26:16And if you want to learn more about that, you can check it out right here.
26:19Now what we got for you are some balls that you've never thrown before.
26:24Oh, God. What do you guys got cooked up?
26:26But we're not done yet.
26:27What the heck?
26:30In other sports, surfaces are engineered down to the smallest detail to control airflow.
26:34But footballs, they've hardly changed in decades.
26:37So we tested whether a football's design is really optimal.
26:40And to find out, we had Tom Brady throw a series of custom balls, including one built to eliminate his spin entirely.
26:47I didn't even know how you could throw that.
26:48Now, in investigating this, we actually uncovered a secret technique that teams are using to modify their balls and give their players an advantage.
26:55But we'll get to that in a future video, so make sure to subscribe and stay notified. And we'll see you then.
26:59That's insane.
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